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{{disambiginfo}}
{{Automatic taxobox
 
| taxon = Formicidae
{{terjemah|Inggris}}
| image = Meat_eater_ant_feeding_on_honey02.jpg
{{Taxobox
| image2 = {{multiple image|image1=Ant_attacks_ladybeetle.ogv|image2=Ants_and_aphids.ogv}}
| color = Biru
| fossil_range = {{fossilrange|100|0|earliest=140|refs=<ref name=phyl2006>{{cite journal | vauthors = Moreau CS, Bell CD, Vila R, Archibald SB, Pierce NE | title = Phylogeny of the ants: diversification in the age of angiosperms | journal = Science | volume = 312 | issue = 5770 | pages = 101–4 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16601190 | doi = 10.1126/science.1124891 | bibcode = 2006Sci...312..101M | s2cid = 20729380 }}</ref>}} [[Kapur (periode)|Periode Kapur]]&nbsp;– [[Holosen|sekarang]]
| name = Semut
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamili
| fossil_range = [[Kapur (periode)|Periode Kapur]] - Sekarang
| image = Meat eater ant feeding on honey02.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Semut sedang memakan madu
| regnum = Animalia
| phylum = Artropoda
| classis = Insekta
| ordo = Hymenoptera
| subordo = Apokrita
| superfamilia = Vespoidea
| familia = '''Formicidae'''
| familia_authority = [[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1809
| subdivision_ranks = Sub-keluarga
| subdivision =
 
* [[Aenictogitoninae]]
* [[Agroecomyrmecinae]]
* [[Amblyoponinae]] (termasuk "[[Apomyrminae]]")
* [[Aneuretinae]]
* {{extinct}}[[Brownimeciinae]]
* [[Cerapachyinae]]
* [[Dolichoderinae]]
* [[Ecitoninae]] (termasuk "[[Dorylinae]]" dan "[[Aenictinae]]")
* [[Ectatomminae]]
* {{extinct}}[[Formiciinae]]
* [[Formicinae]]
* {{extinct}}[[Haidomyrmecinae]]
* [[Heteroponerinae]]
* [[Leptanillinae]]
* [[LeptanilloidinaeMartialinae]]
* [[Myrmeciinae]] (termasuk "[[Nothomyrmeciinae]]")
* [[Myrmicinae]]
Baris 38 ⟶ 26:
* [[Proceratiinae]]
* [[Pseudomyrmecinae]]
* {{extinct}}[[Sphecomyrminae]]
}}
 
'''Semut''' adalah semua [[serangga]] eusosialanggota yang[[famili berasal dari keluarga(biologi)|famili]] '''FormisidaeFormicidae''', dan semut termasuk dalam[[ordo (biologi)|ordo]] Himenoptera bersama dengan lebah dan tawon[[Hymenoptera]]. Semut terbagi atasmemiliki lebih dari 12.000500 kelompokjenis (spesies), denganyang perbandingansebagian jumlahbesar yang besarhidup di kawasan tropis[[tropika]]. SemutUkuran semut sekitar 0,15 - 0,3&nbsp;cm Sebagian besar semut dikenal sebagai [[serangga sosial]], dengan [[Koloni semut|koloni]] dan sarang-sarangnya yang teratur, yang terkadang terdiri dariberanggotakan ribuan semut per kolonikoloninya. JenisAnggota semutkoloni dibagiterbagi menjadi semut pekerja, semut pejantan, dan [[ratu semut]]. Dimungkinkan pula terdapat kelompok semut penjaga. Satu koloni dapat menguasai dan memakai sebuah daerah yang luas untuk mendukung kegiatankehidupan mereka. [[Koloni semut]] kadangkalakadang kala disebut "[[superorganisme]]" dikarenakankarena koloni-koloni mereka yang membentuk sebuah kesatuan.
 
Meskipun ukuran tubuhnya yang relatif kecil, semut termasuk hewan terkuat di dunia. Semut jantan mampu menopang beban dengan berat lima puluh kali dari berat badannya sendiri, dapat dibandingkan dengan [[gajah]] yang hanya mampu menopang beban dengan berat dua kali dari berat badannya sendiri. Semut hanya tersaingi oleh [[kumbang badak]] yang mampu menopang beban dengan berat 850 kali berat badannya sendiri.
Semut telah menguasai hampir seluruh bagian tanah di [[Bumi]]. Hanya di beberapa tempat seperti di [[Islandia]],[[Greenland]] dan [[Hawaii]], mereka tidak menguasai daerah tesebut.<ref>http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0708/feature5/did_you_know.html</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hear.org/ants/ |title=Pest Ants in Hawaii |date=[[2004-07-08]] |author=Philip Thomas |publisher=Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR)}}</ref> Di saat jumlah mereka bertambah, mereka dapat membnetuk sekitar 15 - 20% jumlah [[biomassa]] hewan-hewan besar.<ref name="schultz">{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=Ted R. Schultz |year=2000 |title=In search of ant ancestors |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA]] |volume=97 |issue=26 |pages=14928–14029 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/97/26/14028}}</ref>
 
[[Asam format]] disebut juga "asam semut" karena semut menghasilkan [[asam]] ini sebagai alat pertahanan diri.
Rayap, terkadang disebut ''semut putih'', tidak memiliki hubungan yang erat dengan semut, walaupun mereka memiliki struktur sosial yang sama. [[Semut beludru]], walaupun menyerupai semut besar, tapi mereka merupakan tawon betina yang tidak bersayap.
 
== Etimologi ==
Semut adalah hewan terkuat didunia. Walaupun tubuhnya kecil, ia mampu menopang benda dengan beban 50 kali dari beban tubuhnya. Jika diadukan dengan hewan sangat besar seperti gajah atau gorilla, yang hanya mampu menopang benda maksimal sampai 3 kali dari beban tubuhnya.
Kata semut berasal dari Melayu Klasik, dari kata
Aslian, dari Proto-Mon-Khmer *suc; *suuc; *suəc; *kantung; *siic (“menyengat”)
 
== Jenis dan penyebaran ==
Semut telah menguasai hampir seluruh bagian tanah di [[Bumi]]. Hanya di beberapa tempat seperti di [[Islandia]], [[Greenland]], dan [[Hawaii]], mereka tidak menguasai daerah tersebut.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0708/feature5/did_you_know.html |title=Salinan arsip |access-date=2007-11-10 |archive-date=2007-11-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116080214/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0708/feature5/did_you_know.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hear.org/ants/ |title=Pest Ants in Hawaii |date=2004-07-08 |author=Philip Thomas |publisher=Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR)}}</ref> Mereka diperkirakan membentuk sekitar 15–20% dari [[biomassa]] hewan-hewan darat.<ref name="schultz">{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=Ted R. Schultz |year=2000 |title=In search of ant ancestors |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA]] |volume=97 |issue=26 |pages=14928–14029 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/97/26/14028}}</ref>
 
Beberapa jenis semut sangat dikenal oleh manusia karena hidup bersama-sama dengan manusia, seperti semut hitam, semut besar, semut merah, [[semut api]], dan [[semut rangrang]]. [[Rayap]] terkadang disebut ''semut putih'' namun sama sekali berbeda kelompok dari semut walaupun mereka memiliki struktur sosial yang sama.
 
== Evolusi ==
[[Berkas:Baltic amber inclusions - Ant (Hymenoptera, Formicidae)5.JPG|thumbjmpl||leftkiri|Fosil semut di getah pohon]]
Keluarga Formicidae adalah bagian dari ordo Hymenoptera, yang mencakup capung, [[lebah]] dan [[tawon]]. Semut adalah keturunan dari generasi tawon [[Vespoidea]]. AnalisaAnalisis [[Filogenetik]] mengindikasikan bahwa semut telah berevolusi dari capung vespoid pada periode Kapur sekitar 120 juta sampai 170 juta tahun yang lalu. Setelah kemunculan tumbuhan [[Angiosperma]] sekitar 100 juta tahun yang lalu, mereka menganekaragamkan pengaruh ekolofi sekitar 60 juta tahun yang lalu.<ref name="grimaldi2001">{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=D. Grimaldi & D. Agosti |year=2001 |title=A formicine in New Jersey Cretaceous amber (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and early evolution of the ants |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA]] |volume=97 |pages=13678–13683 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/ijlink?linkType=ABST&journalCode=pnas&resid=97/25/13678}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/312/5770/101 |title=Phylogeny of the Ants: Diversification in the Age of Angiosperms |author=Corrie S. Moreau, Charles D. Bell, Roger Vila, S. Bruce Archibald & Naomi E. Pierce |volume=312 |issue=5770 |pages=101–104 |year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | volume = 102| issue = 21
| pages = 7411–7414| last = Wilson, E. O. Wilson and Bert Hölldobler| title = The rise of the ants: A phylogenetic and ecological explanation| journal = Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
|url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/102/21/7411}}</ref> Beberapa fosil from dari periode Kapur adalah bentuk pertengahan dari semut dan tawon, dan ini menambahkan bukti bagi nenek moyang tawon. Seperti hewan berordo Hymenoptera lainnya, sistem genetika semut ditemukan di [[haplodiploidy]].
 
Pada tahun [[1966]], [[E. O. Wilson]], dkk. menemukan fosil semut dalam getah pohon (''[[Sphecomyrma freyi]]'') dari periode Kapur. Fosil ini terjebak di sebuah getah pohon di [[New Jersey]] dan telah berumur lebih dari 80 juta tahun. Fosil ini memberikan bukti terjelas tentang hubungan semut modern dan tawon non-sosial. Semut periode Kapur berbagi karakteristik semut modern dan tawon.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=[[E. O. Wilson]], F. M. Carpenter, W. L. Brown |title=The first Mesozoic ants |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |year=1967 |volume=157 |pages=1038–1040 |id={{DOI|10.1126/science.157.3792.1038}}}}</ref>
 
Selama periode Kapur, hanya sebagian kecil spesies yang berhasil menguasai daerah benua besar [[Laurasia]] (bagian utara). Mereka pun sangat langka dengan perbandingan jumlah sekitar 1% dari jenis serangga lainnya. Semut menjadi dominan setelah [[radiasi adaptif]] pada awal [[Periode Tertiari]]. Jumlah spesies yang tersisa pada periode Kapur dan periode Ecocene, hanya 1 dari 10 genera yang punah sampai saat ini. 56% dari genera semut yang terdapat di fosil getah kayu di daerah [[Baltik]] (sejak [[Oligocene]] awal), dan sekitar 96% dari genera semut yang terdapat di fosil getah kayu di [[Republik Dominika|Dominika]] (sejak awal [[Miocene]]) masih bertahan hingga sekarang.<ref name="grimaldi2001" />
 
== Morfologi ==
[[Berkas:Ant head closeup.jpg|thumbjmpl|rightka|Gambar dekat memperlihatkan rahang bawah dan mata semut yang kecil.]]
Tubuh semut terdiri atas tiga bagian, yaitu kepala, mesosoma (dada), dan metasoma (perut). Morfologi semut cukup jelas dibandingkan dengan serangga lain yang juga memiliki [[antena]], [[kelenjar metapleural]], dan bagian perut kedua yang berhubungan ke tangkai semut membentuk pinggang sempit (pedunkel) di antara mesosoma (bagian rongga dada dan daerah perut) dan metasoma (perut yang kurang abdominal segmen dalam petiole). Petiole yang dapat dibentuk oleh satu atau dua node (hanya yang kedua, atau yang kedua dan ketiga abdominal segmen ini bisa terwujud).
 
Tubuh semut, seperti serangga lainnya, memiliki [[eksoskeleton]] atau kerangka luar yang memberikan perlindungan dan juga sebagai tempat menempelnya otot, berbeda dengan kerangka manusia dan hewan [[bertulang belakang]]. Serangga tidak memiliki [[paru-paru]], tetapi mereka memiliki lubang-lubang pernapasan di bagian dada bernama [[spirakel]] untuk sirkulasi udara dalam sistem respirasi mereka. Serangga juga tidak memiliki sistem peredaran darah tertutup. Sebagai gantinya, mereka memiliki saluran berbentuk panjang dan tipis di sepanjang bagian atas tubuhnya yang disebut "aorta punggung" yang fungsinya mirip dengan jantung. [[sistem saraf]] semut terdiri dari sebuah semacam otot saraf ventral yang berada di sepanjang tubuhnya, dengan beberapa buah [[ganglion]] dan cabang yang berhubungan dengan setiap bagian dalam tubuhnya.
 
[[Berkas:Scheme ant worker anatomy-id.svg|215px|kiri|jmpl|Anatomi semut.]]
Pada kepala semut terdapat banyak organ sensor. Semut, layaknya serangga lainnya, memiliki [[mata majemuk]] yang terdiri dari kumpulan lensa mata yang lebih kecil dan tergabung untuk mendeteksi gerakan dengan sangat baik. Mereka juga punya tiga oselus di bagian puncak kepalanya untuk mendeteksi perubahan cahaya dan polarisasi. <ref>{{cite journal|journal=Science|year=1985|volume=228|issue=4696|pages=192-194|doi=10.1126/science.228.4696.192|title=Ocelli: A Celestial Compass in the Desert Ant ''Cataglyphis''|first1=Karl|last1=Fent|first2=Rudiger|last2=Wehner}}</ref> Kebanyakan semut umumnya memiliki penglihatan yang buruk, bahkan beberapa jenis dari mereka buta. Namun, beberapa spesies semut, semisal semut bulldog Australia, memiliki penglihatan yang baik. Pada kepalanya juga terdapat sepasang [[antena]] yang membantu semut mendeteksi rangsangan kimiawi. Antena semut juga digunakan untuk berkomunikasi satu sama lain dan mendeteksi feromon yang dikeluarkan oleh semut lain. Selain itu, antena semut juga berguna sebagai alat peraba untuk mendeteksi segala sesuatu yang berada di depannya. Pada bagian depan kepala semut juga terdapat sepasang rahang atau [[mandibula]] yang digunakan untuk membawa makanan, memanipulasi objek, membangun sarang, dan untuk pertahanan. Pada beberapa spesies, di bagian dalam mulutnya terdapat semacam kantung kecil untuk menyimpan makanan untuk sementara waktu sebelum dipindahkan ke semut lain atau larvanya.
Pada kepala semut terdapat banyak organ sensor. Semut, layaknya serangga lainnya, memiliki [[mata majemuk]] yang terdiri dari kumpulan lensa mata yang lebih kecil dan tergabung untuk mendeteksi gerakan dengan sangat baik. Mereka juga punya tiga [[oselus]] di bagian puncak kepalanya untuk mendeteksi perubahan cahaya dan polarisasi.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Science|year=1985|volume=228|issue=4696|pages=192-194|doi=10.1126/science.228.4696.192|title=Ocelli: A Celestial Compass in the Desert Ant ''Cataglyphis''|first1=Karl|last1=Fent|first2=Rudiger|last2=Wehner}}</ref> Kebanyakan semut umumnya memiliki penglihatan yang buruk, bahkan beberapa jenis dari mereka buta. Namun, beberapa spesies semut, semisal semut bulldog Australia, memiliki penglihatan yang baik. Pada kepalanya juga terdapat sepasang [[antena]] yang membantu semut mendeteksi rangsangan kimiawi. Antena semut juga digunakan untuk berkomunikasi satu sama lain dan mendeteksi feromon yang dikeluarkan oleh semut lain. Selain itu, antena semut juga berguna sebagai alat peraba untuk mendeteksi segala sesuatu yang berada di depannya. Pada bagian depan kepala semut juga terdapat sepasang rahang atau [[mandibula]] yang digunakan untuk membawa makanan, memanipulasi objek, membangun sarang, dan untuk pertahanan. Pada beberapa spesies, di bagian dalam mulutnya terdapat semacam kantung kecil untuk menyimpan makanan untuk sementara waktu sebelum dipindahkan ke semut lain atau larvanya.
 
Di bagian dada semut terdapat tiga pasang kaki dan di ujung setiap kakinya terdapat semacam cakar kecil yang membantunya memanjat dan berpijak pada permukaan. Sebagian besar semut jantan dan betina calon ratu memiliki sayap. Namun, setelah kawin betina akan menanggalkan sayapnya dan menjadi ratu semut yang tidak bersayap. Semut pekerja dan prajurit tidak memiliki sayap.
Baris 71 ⟶ 68:
 
== Perkembangan ==
[[Berkas:Meat eater ant nest swarming02.jpg|thumbjmpl|Semut pemakan daging sedang berkerumun]]
[[Berkas:Meat eater ant qeen excavating hole.jpg|thumbjmpl|Ratu semut pemakan daging yang telah dibuahi mulai menggali koloni baru]]
Kehidupan seekor semut dimulai dari sebuah [[telur]]. Jika telur telah dibuahi, semut yang ditetaskan betina ([[diploid]]); jika tidak jantan ([[haploid]]). Semut adalah serangga ''are [[holometabolismholometabolisme]]'', yaitu tumbuh melalui [[metamorfosa]] yang lengkap, melewati tahap [[larva]] dan [[pupa]] (dengan pupa yang ''exarate'') sebelum mereka menjadi dewasa. Tahap larva adalah tahap yang sangat rentan — lebih jelasnya larva semut tidak memiliki kaki sama sekali – dan tidak dapat menjaga diri sendiri. Perbedaan antara ratu dan pekerja (dimana sama-sama betina),dan antara [[kasta]] pekerja jika ada, ditentukan pada saat pemberian makan saat masih menjadi larva. Makanan diberikan kepada larva dengan proses yang disebut ''[[trophallaxis]]'' dimana seekor semut ''[[Regurgitation|regurgitates]]'' makanan yang sebelumnya disimpan dalam ''crop for communal storage''. Ini juga cara yang digunakan semut dewasa memdistribusikan makananpada semut dewasa lainnya. Larva and pupa harus disimpan pada suhu yang cukup konstan untuk memastikan mereka tumbuh dengan baik, sehingga sering dipindahkan ke berbagai ''brood chambers'' dalam koloni.
 
Seekor semut pekerja yang baru memasuki masa dewasa menghabiskan beberapa hari pertama mereka untuk merawat ratu dan semut muda. Setelah itu meningkat menjadi menggali dan pekerjaan sarang lainnya, dan kemudian mencari makan dan mempertahankan sarang. Perubahan tugas ini bisa terjadi dengan mendadak dan disebut dengan [[kasta sementara]]. Sebuah teory mengapa seperti itu karena mencari makan memiliki risiko kematian yang tinggi, sehingga semut hanya berpartisipasi jika mereka sudah cukup tua dan bagaimanapun juga lebih dekat pada kematian. Pada beberapa spesies semut terdapat [[kasta fisik]] — pekerja bisa memiliki ukuran tubuh yang berbeda-beda, disebut pekerja ''minor'', ''median'', dan ''major'', <!--the latter beginning foraging sooner-->. Biasanya semut yang lebih besar memiliki kepala yang tidak proporsional besarnya, dan ''correspondingly'' [[rahang]] yang lebih kuat. Semut seperti ini seringkali disebut semut "tentara" karena rahang mereka yang kuat membuat mereka lebih efektif ketika digunakan untuk bertarung dengan makhluk lainnya, namun mereka masih tetap seekor semut perkerja dan tugas mereka tidak banyak berbeda dengan pekerja ''minor'' atau ''median''. Pada beberapa spesies semut tidak memiliki pekerja ''median'', membuat pemisahan tegas dan perbedaan fisik yang jelas antara pekerja ''minor'' dan ''major''.
 
<!--Bagian ini belum diterjemahkan
Most of the common ant species breed in the same way. Only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens. The male ants, called drones, along with the breeding females emerge from pupation with wings (although some species, like [[army ant]]s, do not produce winged queens), and do nothing throughout their life except eat and mate. At this time, all breeding ants, excluding the queen, are carried outside where other colonies of similar species are doing the same. Then, all the winged breeding ants take flight. Mating occurs in flight and the males die shortly afterward. The females that survive land and seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their own wings and begin to lay eggs, which they care for. [[Spermatozoon|Sperm]] obtained during their [[nuptial flight]] is stored and used to fertilize all future eggs produced. The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers, but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food and care for the other eggs. This is how most new colonies start. A few species that have multiple queens can start a new colony as a queen from the old nest takes a number of workers to a new site and founds a colony there.
 
Ant colonies can be long-lived. The queens themselves can live for up to 30 years, while workers live from 1 to 3 years. Males, however, are more transitory, surviving only a few weeks.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=L. Keller |year=1998 |title=Queen lifespan and colony characteristics in ants and termites |journal=[[Insectes Sociaux]] |volume=45 |pages=235–246}}</ref>
 
Ants survive the winter by going into a state of dormancy or inactivity. The forms of inactivity are varied and some temperate species have larvae that go into [[diapause]] while in others the adults alone pass the winter in a state of reduced activity. This does not happen in the tropics.<ref>{{cite journal|quotes=no|author=Kipyatkov, V.E.|year=2001|title=Seasonal life cycles and the forms of dormancy in ants (Hymenoptera, Formicoidea)|journal=Acta Societatis Zoologicae Bohemicae|volume=65|issue=2|pages=198–217|url=http://mn1052.srv.pu.ru/win/entomol/Kipyatkov/Publications/Papers/HTML/kipyatkov2001b.htm}}</ref>
-->
 
== Polimorfisme ==
[[Berkas:HoneyAnt.jpg|thumb|right|''Myrmecocystus'' (Honeypot) semut menyimpan makanan untuk menjaga koloni dari kelaparan.]]
Semut memperlihatkan perbedaan ''morphological'' yang besar antar kasta yang berbeda. Dimana di berbagai spesies lain perbedaannya sedikit.
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Ants show a wide range of morphological differences between the castes. While in some species, these differences are small, they are large in others. In some ant species there can be several size variants within the worker castes.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=[[E. O. Wilson]] |year=1953 |title=The origin and evolution of polymorphism in ants |journal=[[Quarterly Review of Biology]] |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=136–156}}</ref> Workers cannot mate; however, because of the [[haplodiploid sex-determination system]] in ants, workers of a number of species are able to lay unfertilized eggs leading to fully functional haploid males.
 
A group of ants called [[honeypot ant]]s, have special workers called ''repletes'' who only store food for the rest of the colony, generally becoming immobile with greatly enlarged abdomens. In hot, dry places, like parts of [[Africa]], [[North America]], and [[Australia]] they are eaten and considered by some to be a great [[delicacy]]. In Australia, they are prized as a type of [[bushfood]] and considered a [[sweetmeat]].
-->
 
== Ekologi dan kebiasaan ==
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===Komunikasi===
[[Berkas:Ant mound.jpg|thumb|Ant mound holes prevent water from entering the nest during rain.]]
[[Berkas:Ant hole activity.jpg|thumb|Ant hole in a flurry of activity during swarming]]
Ants communicate with each other through chemicals called [[pheromone]]s, these signal messages are more developed in ant species than in other [[hymenopteran]]s groups. Like other insects, ants smell with their long and thin antennae that are fairly mobile. The antennae have a distinct elbow joint after an elongated first segment; and since they come in pairs—rather like binocular vision or stereophonic sound equipment—they provide information about direction as well as intensity. Since ants spend their life in contact with the ground, the soil surface makes a good place to leave a pheromone trail that can be followed by other ants. In those species which forage in groups, when a forager finds food they mark a trail on the way back to the colony, and this is followed by other ants that reinforce the trail when ''they'' head back to the colony. When the food is exhausted, no new trails are marked by returning ants and the scent slowly dissipates. This behavior helps ants adapt to changes in their environment. When an established path to a food source is blocked by a new obstacle, the foragers leave the path to explore new routes. If successful, the returning ant leaves a new trail marking the shortest route. Successful trails are followed by more ants, and each reinforces the trail with more pheromone (ants will follow the heaviest marked trails). Home is often located by remembered landmarks in the area and by the position of the [[sun]]; ants' compound eyes have specialized cells that detect polarized light, used to determine direction. <ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=Tsukasa Fukushi |year=2001 |title=Homing in wood ants, ''Formica japonica'': use of the skyline panorama |journal=[[Journal of Experimental Biology]] |volume=204 |pages=2063–2072 |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/abstract/204/12/2063}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=Rüdiger Wehner & Randolf Menzel |year=1969 |title=Homing in the ant ''Cataglyphis bicolor'' |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=164 |issue=3876 |pages=192–194}}</ref>
 
Ants use pheromones for other purposes as well. A crushed ant will emit an alarm pheromone which in high concentration sends nearby ants into an attack frenzy; and in lower concentration, merely attracts them. To confuse enemies, several ant species use "propaganda pheromones", which cause their enemies to fight amongst themselves.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=Patrizia D'Ettorre & Jürgen Heinze |journal=[[Acta ethologica]] |year=2001 |volume=3 |pages=67–82 |title=Sociobiology of slave-making ants |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/cj1arl0gqb2amw7h/}}</ref>
 
Pheromones are also exchanged mixed with food and passed in the [[trophallaxis]], giving the ants information about one another's health and nutrition. Ants can detect what task group (e.g. foraging or nest maintenance) other ants belong to. When the queen stops producing a specific pheromone the workers raise new queens.
 
Some ants also produce sounds by [[stridulation]] using the gaster segments and also using their mandibles. They may serve to communicate among colony members as well as in interactions with other species.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=R. Hickling & R. L. Brown |year=2000 |title=Analysis of acoustic communication by ants |journal=[[Journal of the Acoustical Society of America]] |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=1920–1929}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=F. Roces & [[Bert Holldöbler|B. Hölldobler]] |year=1996 |title=Use of stridulation in foraging leaf-cutting ants: Mechanical support during cutting or short-range recruitment signal? |journal=[[Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology]] |volume=39 |pages=293}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=S. Milius |year=2000 |title=When ants squeak |journal=[[Science News]] |volume=157 |issue=6 |pages=92 |url=http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20000205/bob12.asp}}</ref>
 
===Perlindungan===
[[Berkas:WeaverAntDefense.JPG|thumb|A [[weaver ant]] in fighting position, [[mandible]]s wide open]]
[[Berkas:WeaverAntsAgainstRedAnt.JPG|thumb|Weaver ants collaborating to dismember a red ant (the two at the extremities are pulling the red ant, while the middle one cuts the red ant until she snaps)]]
Ants attack others and defend themselves by biting and in many species, stinging, often injecting chemicals like [[formic acid]]. [[Bullet ant]]s (the genus ''[[Paraponera]]''), located in [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], are considered to have the most painful sting among insects, although these are usually non-fatal. They are given the highest rating on the [[Schmidt Sting Pain Index]]. [[Jack jumper ant]]s, ''[[Myrmecia pilosula]]'', located in Australia have stings that cause fatality to a small number of people in the population, and cause hospitalizations each year.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Clarke P.S.|year=1986|title=The natural history of sensitivity to jack jumper ants (hymenoptera:formicidae:''Myrmecia pilosula'') in Tasmania.|journal=Med J Aust|volume=145|pages=564–566}}</ref> A vaccine based on use of the venom extract to develop immunity has been developed.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Efficacy of ant venom immunotherapy and whole body extracts|author=Brown, S.G.A., Robert J. Heddle, Michael D. Wiese and Konrad E. Blackman|journal=Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology|volume=116|issue=2|year=2005|pages=464–465|id=doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2005.04.025}}</ref>
 
[[Fire ant]]s, ''[[Solenopsis]] spp.'', are unique in having a poison sac containing [[piperidine]] alkaloids.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=M. S. Obin & R.K. Vander Meer |year=1985 |title=Gaster flagging by fire ants (''Solenopsis spp.''): Functional significance of venom dispersal behavior |journal=[[Journal of Chemical Ecology]] |volume=11 |pages=1757–1768}}</ref>
 
Some ants of the genus ''[[Odontomachus]]'' are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws. This snap-jaw mechanism, or catapult mechanism, is possible because energy is stored in the large closing muscles. The blow is incredibly fast, about 0.5&nbsp;[[millisecond|ms]] in the genus ''[[Mystrium]]''. Before the strike, the mandibles open wide and are locked in the open position by the labrum, which functions as a latch. The attack is triggered by stimulation of sensory hairs at the side of the mandibles. The mandibles are also able to function as a tool for more finely adjusted tasks. Two similar groups are ''[[Odontomachus]]'' and ''[[Dacetini]]'' - examples of [[convergent evolution]].
 
Apart from defense against larger threats, ants also need to defend their colonies against disease organisms. Some ant workers' role is to maintain the hygiene of the colony and their activities include [[undertaker|undertaking]] or necrophory, the transport of dead nest-mates.<ref>{{cite journal|quotes=no|author=Julian G.E., Cahan S. |title=Undertaking specialization in the desert leaf-cutter ant ''Acromyrmex versicolor''. |journal=Anim. Behav. |year=1999|volume=58|issue=2|pages=437–442}}</ref> Oleic acid is identified as one compound released by dead ants that triggers undertaking behaviour in ''Atta mexicana''.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Germán Octavio López-riquelme, Edi A. Malo, Leopoldo Cruz-lópez, María Luisa Fanjul-moles|year=2006|title=Antennal olfactory sensitivity in response to task-related odours of three castes of the ant ''Atta mexicana'' (hymenoptera: formicidae)|journal=Physiological Entomology|volume=31|issue=4|pages=353–360|url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-3032.2006.00526.x}}</ref>
 
The nests are also protected from physical threats such as flooding by elaborate structures at the entrance or special chambers for escaping from flooding. Some arboreal species that live in plant hollows also have behavioural responses to flooding, where the workers drink the water and excrete it outside the nest.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Communal peeing: a new mode of flood control in ants.|journal=Naturwissenschaften|year=2000|volume=87|issue=12|pages=563–565|last=Maschwitz|first=U.|last2=Moog|first2=J.}}</ref>
 
===Pembelajaran===
While many types of animals can [[learning|learn]] behaviors by [[imitation|imitating]] other animals, ants may be the only group of animals besides [[primate]]s and some other [[mammal]]s in which interactive teaching behavior has been observed. Knowledgeable forager ants of the species ''[[Temnothorax albipennis]]'' directly lead naïve nest-mates to newly discovered food sources by the excruciatingly slow (and time-costly) process of [[tandem running]]. The follower thereby obtains knowledge that it would not have, had it not been tutored, and this is at the expense of its nest-mate teacher. Both leader and follower are acutely sensitive to the progress of their partner. For example, the leader slows down when the follower lags too far behind, and speeds up when the follower gets too close, while the follower does the opposite.<ref>{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=N. R. Franks & T. Richardson| year=2006 |title=Teaching in tandem-running ants |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=439 |issue=7073 |pages=153 |id=PMID 16407943}}</ref>
 
Controlled experiments with colonies of ''Cerapachys biroi'' suggest that these ants can specialize based on their previous experience. An entire generation of identical workers was divided into two groups based on how the researchers controlled the outcome of food foraging. One group was continually rewarded with prey, while it was made certain that the other failed. As a result, members of the successful group intensified their foraging attempts while the unsuccessful group ventured out less and less. One month later, 'workers that previously found prey kept on exploring for food, whereas those who always failed specialized in brood care'<ref>.{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=F. Ravary, Emmanuel Lecoutey, G. Kaminski, N. Châline & P. Jaisson| year=2007 |title=Individual Experience Alone Can Generate Lasting Division of Labor in Ants |journal=[[Current Biology]] |volume=17 |issue=15 |pages=1308}} </ref>
 
===Konstruksi sarang===
{{main|Koloni semut}}
[[Berkas:WeaverAntNest.JPG|thumb|Leaf nest of [[weaver ants]], [[Pamalican]], [[Philippines]]]]
While some ants form complex nests and galleries, other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures. Various species may form subterranean nests or build them on trees. Nests can be found in the ground with craters or mounds around the entrance, under stones or logs, in logs, hollow stems, even acorns. The materials used for construction include soil and plant matter,<ref name = HolldoblerWilsonAnts/> and they are highly selective of the nest site; ''[[Temnothorax albipennis]]'' will avoid sites with dead ants as these may be indicators of pests or disease. They are also quick to abandon established nest sites at the first sign of these threats.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Franks|first=N.R.|first2=J.|last2=Hooper|first3=C.|last3=Webb|first4=A|last4=Dornhaus|year= 2005|title=Tomb evaders: house-hunting hygiene in ants|journal=[[Biol. Lett.]]|volume=1|issue=2|pages=190–192}}</ref>
 
Some of the more advanced ants are the [[army ant]]s and [[driver ant]]s, from [[South America]] and [[Africa]] respectively. Unlike most species which have permanent nests, army and driver ants do not form permanent nests, but instead alternate between nomadic stages and stages where the workers form a temporary nest ([[bivouac (ants)|bivouac]]) out of their own bodies. Colonies reproduce either through nuptial flights as described above, or by fission, where a group of workers simply dig a new hole and raise new queens. Colony members are distinguished by smell, and other intruders are usually attacked.
 
[[Weaver ant]]s (''[[Oecophylla]]'') build nests in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then sewing them together by pressing silk-producing larvae against them in alternation.
 
===Pemeliharaan makanan===
{{main|Simbiosis mutualisme semut-jamur}}
[[Leafcutter ant]]s (''[[Atta]]'' and ''[[Acromyrmex]]'') feed exclusively on a special [[fungus]] that lives only within their colonies. They continually collect [[leaf|leaves]] which they cut into tiny pieces for the fungus to grow on. There are different sized castes specially suited to finer and finer tasks of cutting and chewing the leaves and tending to the garden. Leaf cutter ants are sensitive enough to adapt to the fungi's reaction to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is toxic to the fungus the colony will no longer collect it. The ants grow the fungus because it produces special structures called ''[[gongylidia]]'' which are fed on by the ants. They create antibiotics on their exterior surfaces with the aid of symbiotic bacteria, and subsist entirely on this farming of the fungus.
 
===Navigasi===
Desert ants ''Cataglyphis fortis'' make use of visual landmarks in combination with other cues to navigate.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=[[Susanne Åkesson]] & [[Rüdiger Wehner]] |year=2002 |title=Visual navigation in desert ants ''Cataglyphis fortis'': are snapshots coupled to a celestial system of reference? |journal=[[Journal of Experimental Biology]] |volume=205 |pages=1971–1978 |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/205/14/1971.pdf}}</ref>
 
In the absence of visual landmarks, [[Sahara desert ant]]s have been shown to navigate by keeping track of direction as well as distance travelled, like an internal [[pedometer]] that keeps tracks of how many steps they take, and use this information to find the shortest routes back to their nests.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=S. Sommer & [[Rüdiger Wehner|R. Wehner]] |year=2004 |title=The ant's estimation of distance travelled: experiments with desert ants, ''Cataglyphis fortis'' |journal=[[Journal of Comparative Physiology|J. Comp. Physiol. A Neuroethol. Sens. Neural Behav. Physiol.]] |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/bywx5wqjchmh85t2/ }}</ref>
 
===Daya gerak===
Worker ants generally do not grow wings and reproductive females remove theirs after their mating flights in order to begin their colonies. Therefore, unlike their wasp ancestors, most ants travel by [[walking]].
 
The more cooperative species of ants sometimes form chains to bridge gaps, whether that be over water, underground, or through spaces in arboreal paths. Some species also form floating rafts that help them survive floods. They may also have a role in colonization of islands.<ref>Morrison, L. W. (1998) A Review of Bahamian Ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Biogeography. Journal of Biogeography. 25(3):561-571</ref>
 
[[Berkas:Harpegnathos saltator.jpg|thumb|''[[Harpegnathos saltator]]'', a jumping ant]]Some ants are even capable of leaping. A particularly notable species is Jerdon's jumping ant, ''[[Harpegnathos saltator]]''. This is achieved by synchronized action of the mid and hind pair of legs.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=C. Baroni Urbani, G. S. Boyan, A. Blarer, J. Billen & T. M. Musthak Ali |year=1994 |title=A novel mechanism for jumping in the Indian ant ''Harpegnathos saltator'' (Jerdon) (Formicidae, Ponerinae) |journal=[[Experientia]] |volume=50 |pages=63–71}}</ref>
 
''[[Polyrhachis sokolova]]'', a species of ant found in [[Australia]]n [[mangrove]] swamps, can swim and lives in nests that are submerged underwater. They make use of trapped pockets of air in the submerged nests.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=R. E. Clay & A. N. Andersen |year=1996 |title=Ant fauna of a mangrove community in the Australian seasonal tropics, with particular reference to zonation |journal=[[Australian Journal of Zoology]] |volume=44 |pages=521–533}}</ref>
 
There are several species of [[gliding ant]] including ''Cephalotes atratus''. In fact this may be a common trait among most arboreal ants. Ants with this ability are able to direct the direction of their descent while falling.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=S. P. Yanoviak, R. Dudley & M. Kaspari |year=2005 |title=Directed aerial descent in canopy ants |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=433 |pages=624–626 |url=http://www.canopyants.com/Nature05.pdf}}</ref>
 
==Kompetisi dan kerjasama semut==
[[Berkas:Meat eater ants feeding on honey.jpg|thumb|Meat eater ants feeding on honey - social ants cooperate and collectively gather food.]]
 
Not all ants have the same kind of societies. The Australian [[bulldog ant]]s are among the biggest and most primitive of ants. The individual hunts alone, using its large eyes instead of its chemical senses to find prey. Like all ants they are social, but their social behavior is poorly developed compared to more advanced species. An Australian bulldog ant, ''[[Myrmecia pilosula]]'', has only a single pair of chromosomes and males have just one chromosome as they are [[haploid]].
 
Some species of ants are known for attacking and taking over the colonies of other ant species. Others are less expansionist but nonetheless just as aggressive; they attack colonies to steal eggs or larvae, which they either eat or raise as workers/slaves. Some ants, such as the [[Amazon ant]]s, are incapable of feeding themselves, and must rely on captured worker ants to care for them. In some cases ant colonies may have other species of ants or termites within the same nest.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=E. Diehl, L. K. Junqueira & E. Berti-Filho |year=2005 |title=Ant and termite mound coinhabitants in the wetlands of Santo Antonio da Patrulha, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil |journal=[[Brazilian Journal of Biology]] |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=431–437 |url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1519-69842005000300008&lng=en&nrm=iso}}</ref>
 
The [[pavement ant]] is famous for its urge to increase its territory. In early spring, colonies attempt to conquer new areas and often attack the nearest enemy colony. These result in huge sidewalk battles, sometimes leaving thousands of ants dead. Because of their aggressive nature, they often invade and colonize seemingly impenetrable areas.
 
Ants identify kin and nestmates through their scents, a [[hydrocarbon]]-laced secretion that coats their exoskeletons. If an ant is separated from its original colony, it will eventually lose the colony scent. Any ant that enters a colony with a different scent than that of the colony will be attacked.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=Gregg Henderson, John F. Andersen, Joel K. Phillips & Robert L. Jeanne |year=2005 |title=Internest aggression and identification of possible nestmate discrimination pheromones in polygynous ant ''Formica montana'' |journal=[[Journal of Chemical Ecology]] |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=2217–2228}}</ref> (See also [[Kin selection]])
 
==Keanekaragaman==
{| class="wikitable sortable" align="right" style="margin: 10px;"
|-
! [[Region]] !! Number of{{br}}species&nbsp;<ref name = HolldoblerWilsonAnts>{{cite book |author=B. Hölldobler & E. O. Wilson |title=The Ants |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]}}</ref>
|-
| [[Tropik]] ||align="right"| 2162
|-
| [[Arktik]] ||align="right"| 580
|-
| [[Eropa]] ||align="right"| 180
|-
| [[Afrika]] ||align="right"| 2500
|-
| [[Asia]] ||align="right"| 2080
|-
| [[Melanesia]] ||align="right"| 275
|-
| [[Australia]] ||align="right"| 985
|-
| [[Polinesia]] ||align="right"| 42
|}
There is a great diversity among ants and their behaviors. They range in size from 2 to about 25&nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]] (about 0.08 to 1&nbsp;[[inch]]). Their color may vary; most are red or black, but other colors can also be seen, including some tropical groups with a metallic luster. (See also [[List of ant genera (alphabetical)|ant genera]]). Numerous species of ant continue to be added in present times and taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematics of ants. Online databases of ant species include AntBase and the Hymenoptera Name Server.<ref>{{cite web |author=Donat Agosti & N. F. Johnson (eds.) |year=2005 |title=Antbase |url=http://www.antbase.org/}}</ref>
 
Ants have been used as indicator species in biodiversity studies.<ref>{{cite book |author=D. Agosti, J. D. Majer, L. E. Alonso & T. R. Schultz (eds.) |year=2000 |title=Ants: Standard methods for measuring and monitoring biodiversity |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian Institution Press]] |pages=280 pp |url=http://antbase.org/databases/publications_20330.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state.edu:210/hymenoptera/nomenclator.home_page |title=Hymenoptera name server |publisher=[[Ohio State University]]}}</ref>
 
==Hubungan dengan spesies lainnya==
Ants associate with a wide range of species in many ways. They form mutualisms with other insects, plants, and fungi. They parasitize each other. They are preyed upon by many animals and even certain fungi. Because their nests are such hospitable places, many species of arthropods sneak in and integrate themselves in various ways to the ant's daily lives.
 
[[Aphid]]s secrete a sweet liquid called [[Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]] which they exude in the process of feeding from plants. The sugars can provide a high-energy food source, which many ant species collect. In some cases the aphids secrete the honeydew specifically in response to the ants tapping them with their antennas. The ants in turn keep predators away and will move the aphids around to better feeding locations. Upon migrating to a new area, many colonies will take new [[aphid]]s with them, to ensure that they have a supply of honeydew in the new area. Ants also tend [[mealybug]]s to harvest their honeydew. Mealybugs can become a serious pest of pineapple if ants are present to protect mealybugs from natural enemies.<ref>{{cite book |author=G. C. Jahn & J. W. Beardsley |year=1994 |chapter=Big-headed ants, ''Pheidole megacephala'': interference with the biological control of gray pineapple mealybugs |pages=199–205 |editor=D. F. Williams |title=Exotic ants: biology, impact, and control of introduced species |publisher=[[Westview Press]], [[Boulder, Colorado]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=G. C. Jahn & J. W. Beardsley |year=1996 |title=Effects of ''Pheidole megacephala'' (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on survival and dispersal of ''Dysmicoccus neobrevipes'' (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) |journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]] |volume=89 |pages=1124–1129}}</ref>
[[Berkas:Common jassid nymph and ant.jpg|thumb|Meat ant tending a common jassid nymph]]
[[Berkas:Lycaenid ant sec.jpg|thumb|A [[Lycaenidae|lycaenid]] larva and an ant]]
[[Berkas:Ant Receives Honeydew from Aphid.jpg|thumb|An ant collects [[honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]] from an [[aphid]].]]
 
[[Myrmecophile|Myrmecophilous]] (ant-loving) [[caterpillar]]s of the family [[Lycaenidae]] (e.g., blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime, and brought inside the ants' nest at night. The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew when the ants massage them. Some caterpillars are known to produce vibrations and sounds that are sensed by the ants.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=Philip J. DeVries |year=1992 |title=Singing caterpillars, ants and symbiosis |journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume=267 |pages=76}}</ref> Some caterpillars have evolved from being ant-loving to ant-eating and these [[myrmecophagous]] caterpillars secrete a pheromone which makes the ants think that the caterpillar's larva is one of their own. The larva will then be taken into the ants' nest where it can feed on the ant larvae.
 
[[Fungus-growing ants]] that make up the tribe [[attini]], including [[leafcutter ant]]s, actively cultivate certain species of fungus in the ''[[Leucoagaricus]]'' or ''[[Leucocoprinus]]'' genera of the [[Agaricaceae]] family. In this [[ant-fungus mutualism]], both species depend on each other for survival. The ant ''[[Allomerus decemarticulatus]]'' has evolved a tripartite association with their host plant ''[[Hirtella physophora]]'' (Chrysobalanaceae), and a sticky fungus which is used to trap their insect prey.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=Alain Dejean, Pascal Jean Solano, Julien Ayroles, Bruno Corbara & Jérôme Orivel |year=2005 |title=Arboreal ants build traps to capture prey |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=434|pages=973}}</ref>
 
[[Myrmelachista schumanni|Lemon ants]] make [[devil's garden]]s by selectively killing surrounding plants and leaving a pure patch of lemon ant trees ''Duroia hirsuta''.<ref>{{cite journal|quotes=no|author= Frederickson, M. E. and Deborah M. Gordon|year=2007|title = The devil to pay: a cost of mutualism with ''Myrmelachista schumanni'' ants in ‘devil’s gardens’ is increased herbivory on ''Duroia hirsuta'' trees |journal=Proc. R. Soc. B|volume=274
|pages=1117–1123|url=http://www.stanford.edu/~dmgordon/frederickson_gordon2007.pdf}}</ref> Many trees have extrafloral [[nectary|nectaries]] that provide food for ants and the ants in turn protect the plant from [[herbivorous]] insects. Some species like the bullhorn acacia, ''[[Acacia cornigera]]'', in Central America have hollow thorns that serve to house colonies of stinging ants, ''[[Pseudomyrmex ferruginea]]'', that defend the tree against insects, browsing mammals, and [[Epiphyte|epiphytic]] vines. In return, the ants obtain food from protein-lipid [[Beltian bodies]]. Another example of this type of [[ectosymbiosis]] comes from the [[Macaranga]] tree which have stems adapted to house colonies of ''[[Crematogaster]]'' ants. Many tropical tree species have seeds that are dispersed by ants.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=Frances M. Hanzawa, Andrew J. Beattie & David C. Culver |year=1988 |title=Directed dispersal: demographic analysis of an ant-seed mutualism |journal=[[American Naturalist]] |volume=131 |issue=1 |pages=1–13}}</ref>
 
Flies in the Old World genus ''[[Bengalia]]'' ([[Calliphoridae]]) are [[kleptoparasite]]s and [[predator]]s on ants and often snatch prey or brood from the adult ants.<ref name="sivinski">{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=J. Sivinski, S. Marshall & Erik Petersson |year=1999 |title=Kleptoparasitis and phoresy in the Diptera |journal=[[Florida Entomologist]] |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=179–197 |url=http://www.fcla.edu/FlaEnt/fe82p179.pdf}}</ref> Wingless and legless females of the [[Malaysia]]n [[phoridae|phorid]] fly ''[[Vestigipoda myrmolarvoidea]]'' live in the nests of ants of the genus ''[[Aenictus]]'' and are cared for by the ants.<ref name="sivinski"/>
 
Many species of birds show a peculiar behaviour called [[Anting (bird activity)|anting]] that is as yet not fully understood. Here birds may rest on ant nests or pick and drop ants onto their wings and feathers, presumably to rid themselves of [[ectoparasites]].
 
A fungus, ''[[Cordyceps]]'', infects ants, causing them to climb up plants and sink their mandibles into the plant tissue. The fungus kills and engulfs the ant and produces its fruiting body. It appears that the fungus alters the behavior of the ant and uses the ant to help disperse its spores.<ref>{{Cite journal |quotes=no |author=Elio Schaechter |year=2000 |title=Some weird and wonderful fungi |journal=[[Microbiology Today]] |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=116–117}}</ref>
 
Some South American frogs in the genus ''[[Dendrobates]]'' feed primarily on ants and the toxins on their skin may be derived from the ants.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=J. P. Caldwell |year=1996 |title=The evolution of myrmecophagy and its correlates in poison frogs (Family Dendrobatidae) |journal=[[Journal of Zoology]] |volume=240 |issue=1 |pages=75–101}}</ref>
 
[[Brown bear]]s (''Ursus arctos'') have been found to feed on ants, with as much as
12%, 16%, and 4% of their fecal volume in spring, summer, and autumn, respectively being made up of ants.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=Jon E. Swenson, Anna Jansson, Raili Riig & Finn Sandegren |year=1999 |title=Bears and ants: myrmecophagy by brown bears in central Scandinavia |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Zoology]] |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=551–561 |url=http://rparticle.web-p.cisti.nrc.ca/rparticle/AbstractTemplateServlet?journal=cjz&volume=77&msno=z99-004&calyLang=eng}}</ref>
 
Many species of mammals such as [[anteater]]s, [[pangolin]]s and several [[marsupial]] species in Australia have special [[adaptation]]s for living on a primary diet of ants. These adaptations include long sticky tongues to pick the ants and strong claws to break into the ant nests. Some South American birds such as the [[Formicariidae|antpitta]]s are also ant predators.
 
==Semut dan manusia==
[[Berkas:DirkvdM ants on a leaf.jpg|thumb|[[Attini|Leaf-cutter ants]]]]
[[Berkas:Rainforestants.jpg|thumb|Ants in a Sumatran rainforest]]
Ants are useful for clearing out insect [[Pest (organism)|pests]] and aerating the [[soil]]. The use of [[weaver ant]]s in citrus cultivation in southern China is one of the oldest known uses of [[biological control]].<ref name = HolldoblerWilsonAnts/> On the other hand, they can become annoyances when they invade homes, yards, gardens and fields. [[Carpenter ant]]s damage [[wood]] by hollowing it out for nesting.
 
In some parts of the world large ants, especially [[army ant]]s, are said to be used as [[suture]]s by pressing the wound together and applying ants along it. The ant in defensive attitude seizes the edges in its mandibles and locks in place. The body is then cut off and the head and mandibles can remain in place, closing the wound.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=F. Gottrup & David Leaper |year=2004 |title=Wound healing: historical aspects |journal=[[EWMA Journal]] |volume=4 |issue=2 |url=http://www.ewma.org/pdf/fall04/Historical_Aspects.pdf}}</ref>
 
Some species, called ''[[killer ant]]s'', have a tendency to attack much larger animals during foraging or in defending their nests. Attacks on humans are rare, but the stings and bites can be quite painful and in large enough numbers can be disabling.
 
The [[Masai]] of Africa had an abiding respect for the [[Siafu|Siafu ants]], voracious predators that consume a large amount of insects and are welcomed for the benefit they bring to farmers, as they will eliminate all pests from a crop and quickly move on.
 
In [[South Africa]], ants are used to help harvest [[rooibos]], ''Aspalathus linearis'', the small seeds of which are used to make a herbal tea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ciel.org/Publications/InnovativeMechanisms.pdf|title=Innovative Mechanisms for Sharing Benefits of Biodiversity and Related Knowledge|author=David R. Downes and Sarah A. Laird}}</ref>
 
==== Semut sebagai makanan ====
{{main|Entomophagi}}
Semut dan kepompongnya dijadikan makanan di beberapa bagian dunia. Telur dari dua spesies semut menjadi dasar makanan [[Meksiko]] yang disebut "[[escamoles]]". Mereka terbentuk dari telur serangga dan dapat dijual paling tinggi sekitar $ 40 per pon karena jenis ini musiman dan sulit dicari.
Di Santander, [[Kolombia]], ''hormigas culonas'' (harf.: "semut") ''[[Atta laevigata]]'' disajikan hidup-hidup dan langsung dimakan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.colombia.com/gastronomia/autonoticias/DetalleNoticia1046.asp |title=Hormigas culonas |accessdate=2007-03-14}} {{es icon}}</ref> Tradisi ini sudah turun temurun dilakukan di suku [[Guanes]]. Pada beberaoa daerah di [[Thailand]], semut disajikan dan dimakan dengan berbagai cara. Telur semut Khorat dan semut terbang yang terpotong dimakan sebagai [[Hors d'œuvre|makanan pembuka]]. Telur dan kepompong dari [[Oesofila|Semut penenun]] disajikan dalam hidangan salad khas Thailand, ''yum'' (ยำ), dalam sebuah makanan yang disebut ''yum khai mod daeng'' (ยำไข่มดแดง) atau salad telur semut merah. Makanan ini berasal dari Issan, timurlaut Thailand. Ratu semut penenun juga bisa dimakan hidup-hidup pada saat pembangunan sarang.
 
[[Charles Thomas Bingham]] mencatat di beberapa bagian di [[India]], sampai di [[Myanmar]] dan [[Siam]], getah dari semut penenun hijau, ''[[Oecophylla smaragdina]]'', dihidangkan sebagai pelengkap [[kare]].
[[Saville Kent]], dalam [[Naturalist in Australia]] menulis
"''Beauty, in the case of the green ant, is more than skin-deep. Their attractive, almost sweetmeat-like'' ''translucency possibly invited the first essays at their consumption by the human species, mashed up in'' ''water, after the manner of lemon squash, these ants form a pleasant acid drink which is held in high'' ''favor by the natives of North Queensland, and is even appreciated by many European palates''."<ref name="beq">{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=J. Bequaert |year=1921 |title=Insects as Food |journal=[[Natural History (magazine)|Natural History]] |url=http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/editors_pick/1921_03-04_pick.html}}</ref>
 
[[John Muir]], dalam ''[[First Summer in the Sierra]]'' mencatat suku [[Indian]] di [[California]] memakan asam lengket semut hitam besar. Suku Indian Meksiko memakan semut pekerja, atau semut madu (''[[Mirmekokistus]]'').<ref name="beq"/>
 
==== Semut sebagai peliharaan ====
Modern society considers the ant a pest,<ref>[http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7411.html Ants as pests]</ref> and due to the adaptive nature of ant colonies, eliminating them is nearly impossible. Pest control with regard to ants is more a matter of controlling local populations than eliminating an entire colony. Attempts to control ant populations of any kind are temporary solutions.
 
Typical ants that are classified as pests include pavement ants (otherwise known as the [[sugar ant]]), Pharaoh ants, carpenter ants, [[Argentine ant]]s, and the [[red imported fire ant]]. Control of species populations are usually done with bait insecticides, which are either in the form of small granules, or as a sticky liquid that is gathered by the ants as food and then brought back to the nest where the poison is inadvertently spread to other members of the brood — a system that can severely reduce the numbers in a colony if used properly. [[Boric acid]] and [[borax]] are often used as [[insecticide]]s that are relatively safe for humans. With the recent insurgence of the red imported fire ant, a tactic called broadcast baiting has been employed, by which the substance (usually a granule bait designed specifically for fire ants) is spread across a large area, such as a lawn, in order to control populations. Nests may be destroyed by tracing the ants' trails back to the nest, then pouring boiling water into it to kill the queen. This works in about 60% of the mounds and needs about 14 litres (3 gallons) per mound.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oklahoma State University. Two step method for Fire Ant control|url=http://www.ento.okstate.edu/fireants/twostep.htm}}</ref>
 
Ants that tend other insects can indirectly cause pest infestations. Many [[homoptera]]n insects that are considered as horticultural pests are controlled by the use of grease rings on the trunks of the trees. These rings cut off the routes for ants and make the pest species vulnerable to parasites and predators.
 
==== Studi semut ====
[[Myrmecology|Myrmecologists]] study ants both in the laboratory and in their natural conditions using a number of tools and techniques. Ants are [[model organism]]s for the study of [[sociobiology]] and the testing of hypotheses such as those based on the theories of [[kin selection]] or [[Evolutionarily stable strategy|evolutionarily stable strategies]]. Ant colonies can be reared or temporarily maintained in specially constructed glass frames for study purposes.<ref>Kennedy, C. H. Myrmecological technique. [https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/1811/3802/1/V51N01_017.pdf]</ref> For certain kinds of studies it is necessary to identify specific individual ants through the study period and this is achieved by use of colour marking techniques.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Daniel P. Wojcik, Richard J. Burges, Chantal M. Blanton, Dana A. Focks|year=2000|title=An Improved and Quantified Technique for Marking Individual Fire Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)|journal=The Florida Entomologist|volume=83|issue=1|pages=74-78|id=doi:10.2307/3496231|url=http://www.fcla.edu/FlaEnt/fe83p74.pdf}}</ref> The use of [[endoscope]]s to observe ants inside their nest tunnels is another technique that has been used in the field.
 
====Semut menginspirasi teknologi====
The successful techniques used by ant colonies has been widely studied especially in computer science and robotics to produce distributed and fault-tolerant systems for solving problems. This area of [[biomimetics]] has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines which make use of foraging trails and fault tolerant storage and networking algorithms.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=E. Dicke, A. Byde, D. Cliff & P. Layzell |year=2004 |chapter=An Ant-Inspired Technique for Storage Area Network Design |title=Proceedings of Biologically Inspired Approaches to Advanced Information Technology: First International Workshop, BioADIT 2004 LNCS 3141 |pages=364–379 |editor=A. J. Ispeert, M. Murata & N. Wakamiya}}</ref> (See also [[Langton's ant]] and [[ant colony optimization]].)
 
==== Semut dalam budaya ====
[[Berkas:The Ant and the Grasshopper - Project Gutenberg etext 19994.jpg|thumb|[[Aesop]]'s ants. Picture by [[Milo Winter]], 1888-1956.]]
Ants have often been used in fables and children's stories to represent industriousness and cooperative effort, as well as aggressiveness and vindictiveness. They are also mentioned in religious texts.<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Quran]] 27:18–19 |url=http://www.wright-house.com/religions/islam/Quran/27-ant.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=[[Sahih Bukhari]] Vol 4, Book 54, Number 536 |url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/054.sbt.html}}</ref> In the [[Book of Proverbs]] in the [[Bible]] ants are held up as a good example for humans for their hard work and cooperation. [[Aesop]] did the same in his fable "The Grasshopper and the Ants". In parts of Africa, ants are considered to be the messengers of the gods. Ant bites are often said to have curative properties. The sting of some species of ''[[Pseudomyrmex]]'' is claimed to give fever relief.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=William L. Balee |title=Antiquity of Traditional Ethnobiological Knowledge in Amazonia: The Tupi-Guarani Family and Time |journal=[[Ethnohistory]] |volume=47 |issue=2 |year=2000 |pages=399–422}}</ref> Some [[Native American mythology|Native American religions]], such as [[Hopi mythology]], recognize ants as the very first animals. Others use ant bites in [[initiation]] ceremonies as a test of endurance.<ref>{{cite book |author=N. Cesard, J. Deturche & P. Erikson |year=2003 |chapter=Les Insectes dans les pratiques médicinales et rituelles d’Amazonie indigène |editor=E. Motte-Florac & J. M. C. Thomas |title=Les insectes dans la tradition orale. Ethnosciences 5 |publisher=Paris, Peeters-Selaf |pages=395–406}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=D. F. Janssen |year=2007 |title=EncycloPaideia. A Thematic Poly-Linguistic Dictionary of Male Initiation/Passage Rituals |url=http://www.boyhoodstudies.com/encyclopaideia.htm}}</ref>
 
The Japanese word for ant, ''ari'', is represented by an ideograph formed of the character for ''insect'' combined with the character signifying ''moral rectitude'', ''propriety'' (''giri''). So the Japanese character could possibly be read as ''The Propriety-Insect''. Its actual etymology is likely to be different however.<ref>{{cite book |author=Lafcadio Hearn |year=1904 |title=Kwaidan: Japanese stories and studies of strange things |url=http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/socl/customsetiquettefolklore/Kwaidan/toc.html}}</ref>
 
Ant society has always fascinated humans and has been written about both humorously and seriously by writers. [[Mark Twain]] wrote about ants in his ''A Tramp Abroad''. Some modern authors have used the example of the ants to comment on the relationship between society and the individual. Examples are [[Robert Frost]] in his poem "Departmental" and [[T. H. White]] in his fantasy novel ''[[The Once and Future King]]''. In more recent times, animated cartoons and 3D animated movies featuring ants have been produced include ''[[Antz]]'', ''[[A Bug's Life]]'', ''[[The Ant Bully]]'', ''[[The Ant and the Aardvark]]'' , ''[[Atom Ant]]'', and there is a [[comic book]] superhero called ''[[Ant-Man]]''.
 
Perbedaan antara ratu dan pekerja (dimana sama-sama betina), dan antara [[kasta]] pekerja jika ada, ditentukan pada saat pemberian makan saat masih menjadi larva. Makanan diberikan kepada larva dengan proses yang disebut ''[[trophallaxis]]'' dimana seekor semut ''[[Regurgitation|regurgitates]]'' makanan yang sebelumnya disimpan dalam ''crop for communal storage''. Ini juga cara yang digunakan semut dewasa mendistribusikan makanan pada semut dewasa lainnya. Larva and pupa harus disimpan pada suhu yang cukup konstan untuk memastikan mereka tumbuh dengan baik, sehingga sering dipindahkan ke berbagai ''brood chambers'' dalam koloni.
From the late 1950s through the late 1970s, [[formicarium|ant farms]] were popular educational children's toys in the United States. In the early 1990s, the video game [[SimAnt]], which simulated an ant colony, achieved minor success in the gaming world.
 
Seekor semut pekerja yang baru memasuki masa dewasa menghabiskan beberapa hari pertama mereka untuk merawat ratu dan semut muda. Setelah itu meningkat menjadi menggali dan pekerjaan sarang lainnya, dan kemudian mencari makan dan mempertahankan sarang. Perubahan tugas ini bisa terjadi dengan mendadak dan disebut dengan [[kasta sementara]]. Suatu teori mengapa seperti itu karena mencari makan memiliki risiko kematian yang tinggi, sehingga semut hanya berpartisipasi jika mereka sudah cukup tua dan bagaimanapun juga lebih dekat pada kematian.
Ants are also quite popular as the inspiration for many [[science-fiction]] races, such as the Formics of [[Ender's Game]], the Bugs of [[Starship Troopers]], and the giant ants in the film [[Them!]]. These races are often referenced as having a [[hive mind]], a common misconception about ant colonies, and benefit from uncommon unity of focus and a willingness for the individual to give their life for the good of the hive. In [[strategy games]], ant-based species often benefit from increased production rates due to their single-minded focus, such as the Klackons in the [[Master of Orion]] series of games or the ChCht in [[Deadlock II]].-->
 
Pada beberapa spesies semut terdapat [[kasta fisik]] — pekerja bisa memiliki ukuran tubuh yang berbeda-beda, disebut pekerja ''minor'', ''median'', dan ''major'', <!--the latter beginning foraging sooner-->. Biasanya semut yang lebih besar memiliki kepala yang tidak proporsional besarnya, dan ''correspondingly'' [[rahang]] yang lebih kuat. Semut seperti ini sering kali disebut semut "tentara" karena rahang mereka yang kuat membuat mereka lebih efektif ketika digunakan untuk bertarung dengan makhluk lainnya, tetapi mereka masih tetap seekor semut perkerja dan tugas mereka tidak banyak berbeda dengan pekerja ''minor'' atau ''median''. Pada beberapa spesies semut tidak memiliki pekerja ''median'', membuat pemisahan tegas dan perbedaan fisik yang jelas antara pekerja ''minor'' dan ''major''.
==== Semut dalam agama ====
===== Islam =====
Umat [[muslim]] diperintahkan untuk tidak membunuh semut, berdasarkan [[hadits]] riwayat [[Abu Hurairah]] Muhammad bersabda bahwa, "Ada seekor seekor semut pernah menggigit salah seorang [[nabi]]. Nabi tersebut lalu memerintahkan umatnya untuk mendatangi sarang semut kemudian membakarnya. Tetapi kemudian [[Allah]] menurunkan wahyu kepadanya, "Apakah hanya karena seekor semut menggigitmu lantas kamu membinasakan satu umat yang selalu bertasbih."<ref>Hadits shahih [[Imam Muslim]] No.4157.</ref>
 
== Lihat pula ==
Baris 278 ⟶ 85:
* [[Daftar semut di India]]
* [[Mirmekologi]]
* [[Mimikri semut]]
 
== Catatan ==
{{reflist|2}}
== Bacaan lanjutan ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|author=Bolton, Barry|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-674-61514-4|title=A New General Catalogue of the Ants of the World|url=https://archive.org/details/newgeneralcatalo0000bolt}}
* {{cite book|vauthors=Hölldobler B, Wilson EO |year=1998|title=Journey to the Ants: A Story of Scientific Exploration|url=https://archive.org/details/journeytoants00holl |publisher=Belknap Press|isbn=0-674-48526-2}}
* {{cite book|vauthors=Hölldobler B, Wilson EO |year=2009|title=The Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance and Strangeness of Insect Societies|url=https://archive.org/details/superorganismbea0000holl |publisher=Norton & Co.|isbn=978-0-393-06704-0}}
{{refend}}
 
== Pranala luar ==
{{commonsCommons|Ant}}
{{Wikispecies|Formicidae}}
* [http://www.discoverlife.org/20/q?search=Formicidae All Living Things] Gambar, panduan mengidentifikasi, dan peta persebaran semut di dunia.
* [http://www.antweb.org/ antweb.org] Semut-semut di bumi.
* [http://antbase.org/ antbase.org] Informasi mengenai segala jenis semut.
* [http://npic.orst.edu/pest2.htm#ants Ant Pest Control Information -– National Pesticide Information Center] Situs mengenai pengendalian semut yang menjadi hama.
* [http://ants.org.uk/ ants.org.uk] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011165149/http://ants.org.uk/ |date=2007-10-11 }} Desain dari Formicariam dan videonya.
* [http://www.myrmecos.net/ myrmecos.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808115441/http://myrmecos.net/ |date=2011-08-08 }} Gambar-gambar semut.
* [http://bugguide.net/node/view/165 Family Formicidae -– Ants -– BugGuide.Net] -– Gambar dan informasi lainnya.
* [http://fort.thomas.free.fr/ The Ants] Situs Semut PerancisPrancis.
* [http://antnest.co.uk/ www.antnest.co.uk] Website yang didedikasikan untuk [[myrmecology]].
* [http://www.cctvcambridge.org/antsdocumentary Myrmecology Documentary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070906134622/http://www.cctvcambridge.org/antsdocumentary |date=2007-09-06 }} Dokumenter pendek mengenai orang yang meneliti semut.
* [http://antday.de.hm/ antday.de.hm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114153639/http://www.antday.de.hm/ |date=2007-11-14 }} Situs tentang semut.
* [http://www.ento.csiro.au/science/ants/default.htm Australian ants on line] Gambar, kunci, dan buku-buku pegangan.
* [http://digital.library.unt.edu/permalink/meta-dc-1815:1 "House Ants" (pub.1938) ] dikelola oleh [http://www.library.unt.edu/govinfo/digital-collections UNT Government Documents Department]
* [http://www.library.unt.edu/govinfo/digital-collections UNT Government Documents Department] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009202026/http://www.library.unt.edu/govinfo/digital-collections |date=2007-10-09 }}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q7386}}
 
[[Kategori:Semut| ]]
Baris 304 ⟶ 119:
[[Kategori:Simbiosis]]
[[Kategori:Serangga sosial]]
[[Kategori:Hewan di Al-Qur'an]]
 
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[[kv:Кодзувкот]]
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[[zh-yue:螞蟻]]
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