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{{stub}}[[Image:Adornohorkhab1.png|frame|[[Max Horkheimer]] (depan kiri), [[Theodor Adorno]] (depan kanan), dan [[Jürgen Habermas]] di belakang, kanan, pada [[1965]] di [[Heidelberg]]]]▼
{{kegunaanlain|Frankfurt}}
▲{{stub}}[[ImageBerkas:Adornohorkhab1AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png|framejmpl|[[Max Horkheimer]] (depan kiri), [[Theodor Adorno]] (depan kanan), dan [[Jürgen Habermas]] di belakang, kanan, pada [[1965]] di [[Heidelberg]].]]
 
'''Mazhab Frankfurt''' Mazhab([[bahasa FrankfurtJerman]]: ialah''Frankfurter sebuahSchule'') adalah namaistilah yang diberikan kepada pemikiran yang dihasilkan oleh kelompok [[filsuf]] yang masih memiliki afiliasi dengan ''[[Institute forInstitut Socialfür Research]]Sozialforschung'' di [[Frankfurt]], [[Jerman]], dan pemikir-pemikir lainnya yang dipengaruhi oleh mereka. Tahun yang dianggap sebagai tahun kemulaianawal dimulai Mazhab Frankfurt ini adalah tahun [[1930]], ketika [[Max Horkheimer]] diangkat sebagai direktur lembaga riset sosial tersebut. Beberapa filsuf terkenal yang dianggap sebagai anggota Mazhab Frankfurt ini antara lain [[Theodor Adorno]], [[Walter Benjamin]], dan [[Jürgen Habermas]]. Perlu diingat bahwa para pemikir ini tidak pernah mendefinisikan diri mereka sendiri di dalam sebuah kelompok atauataupun 'mazhab', dan bahwa penamaan ini diberikan secara retrospektif. Walaupun kebanyakan dari mereka memiliki sebuah ketertarikan intelektual dengan pemikiran [[neo-Marxisme]] dan kritik terhadap budaya (yang di kemudian hari memengaruhi munculnya bidang ilmu [[Studi Budaya]]), masing-masing pemikir mengaplikasikan kedua hal ini dengan cara-cara dan terhadap subyek kajian yang berbeda.
 
Ketertarikan Mazhab Frankfurt terhadap pemikiran [[Karl Marx]] disebabkan antara lain oleh ketidakpuasan mereka terhadap penggunaan teori-teori [[Marxisme]] oleh kebanyakan orang lain, yang mereka anggap merupakan pandangan sempit terhadap pandangan asli [[Karl Marx]]. Menurut mereka, pandangan sempit ini tidak mampu memberikan 'jawaban' terhadap situasi mereka pada saat itu di Jerman. Setelah [[Perang Dunia Pertama]] dan meningkatnya kekuatan politik [[Nazi]], [[Jerman]] yang ada pada saat itu sangatlah berbeda dengan [[Jerman]] yang dialami [[Karl Marx]]. Sehingga jelaslah bagi para pemikir Mazhab Frankfurt bahwa [[Marxisme]] harus dimodifikasi untuk bisa menjawab tantangan jamanzaman.
 
Patut dicatat bahwa beberapa pemikir utama Mahzab Frankfurt beragama [[Yahudi]], dan terutama di perioda awal secara langsung menjadi korban [[Fasisme]] [[NAZINazi]]. Yang paling tragis ialah kematian [[Walter Benjamin]], yang dicurigai melakukan bunuh diri setelah isi perpustakaannya disita oleh tentara [[NAZINazi]]. Beberapa yang lainnya, seperti [[Theodor Adorno]] dan [[Max Horkheimer]] terpaksa melarikan diri ke negara lain, terutama [[Amerika Serikat]].
 
Contoh karya-karya terkenal yang dihasilkan para pemikir Mazhab Frankfurt antara lain ''Dialectic of Enlightenment'', ''Minima Moralia'', ''Illuminations''.
 
== Sejarah Mazhab Frankfurt ==
Mazhab Frankfurt mengumpulkan para pembangkang [[Marxisme|Marxis]], para kritikus keras [[kapitalisme]] yang percaya bahwa beberapa orang yang dianggap sebagai pengikut [[Karl Marx|Marx]] telah membeo, menirukan beberapa cuplikan sempit dari gagasan-gagasan Marx, biasanya dalam membela partai-partai [[Partai Komunis|komunis]] atau [[Sosial-Demokrat]] ortodoks. Mereka khususnya dipengaruhi oleh kegagalnkegagalan revolusi kaum pekerja di [[Eropa Barat]] setelah [[Perang Dunia I]] dan oleh bangkitnya [[Nazisme]] di negara yang secara ekonomi, teknologi, dan budaya maju (Jerman). Karena itu mereka merasa harus memilih bagian-bagian mana dari pemikiran-pemikiran Marx yang dapat menolong untuk memperjelas kondisi-kondisi sosial condisis yang Marx sendiri tidak pernah lihat. Mereka meminjam dari mazhab-mazhab pemikiranlainpemikiran lain yang mengisi apa yang dianggap kurang dari Marx. [[Max Weber]] memberikan pengaruh yang besar, seperti halnya juga [[Sigmund Freud]] (seperti dalam kasus sintesis [[Freudo-Marxisme|Freudo-Marxis]] oleh [[Herbert Marcuse]] dalam karyanya tahun [[1954]], ''Eros and Civilization''). Penekanan mereka terhadap komponen "Kritis" dari teori sangat banyak meminjam dari upaya mereka untuk mengatasi batas-batas dari [[positivisme]], [[materialisme]] yang kasar, dan [[fenomenologi]] dengan kembali kepada [[filsafat kritis]] [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] dan penerus-penerusnya dalam [[idealisme]] Jerman, khususnya filsafat [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], dengan penekanannya pada [[negasi]] dan [[kontradiksi]] sebagai bagian yang inheren dari [[realitas]]. Sebuah pengaruh penting juga dating dari penerbitan ''[[Manuskrip Ekonomi dan Filsafat tahun 1844|Manuskrip Ekonomi-Filsafat]]'' dan ''[[Ideologi Jerman]]'' karya Marx tahun [[1930-an]] yang memperlihatkan kesinambungan dengan Hegelianisme yang mendasari pemikiran-pemikiran Marx: Marcuse adalah salah satu orang yang pertama mengartikulasikan signifikansi teoretis dari teks-teks ini.
 
== Fase Pertama ==
<!--==The First Phase==
Pengaruh intelektual dan fokus teoretis dari generasi perttama dari para theoretikus Kritis Mazhab Frankfurt muncul dalam diagram berikut:
The intellectual influences on and theoretical focus of the first generation of Frankfurt School critical theorists appear in the following diagram:
 
[[ImageBerkas:Crittheory1.png|CriticalGagasan theoryteori ideasKritis]]
 
TheInstitut Instituteini mademembuat majorsumbangan-sumbangan contributionspenting indalam twodua areasbidang relatingyang toterkait thedengan possibility of rational humankemungkinan-kemungkinan [[subjectsubyek]]s manusia yang rasional, i.e. individualsyaitu whoindividu-individu couldyang actdapat rationallybertindak tosecara takerasional chargeuntuk ofbertanggung theirjawab ownatas [[societymasyarakat]] and their owndan [[historysejarah]] mereka sendiri. Yang The firstpertama consistedterdiri ofatas socialfenomena phenomenasosial previouslyyang consideredsebelumnya indianggap Marxismdalam asMarxisme partsebagai ofbagian thedari "[[superstructuresuperstruktur]]" oratau assebagai [[ideologyideologi]]: struktur-struktur [[personalitykepribadian]], [[familykeluarga]] anddan [[authorityotoritas]] structures (itspenerbitan firstbukunya bookyang publicationpertama borediberi the titlejudul ''Studies ofStudi Authoritytentang andOtoritas thedan FamilyKeluarga''), anddan the realm ofranah [[aestheticsestetika]] anddan [[popularbudaya culturepopuler|massbudaya culturemassa]]. Studi-studi Studies sawini ajuga commonmelihat concernkepedulian herebersama indi thesini abilitydalam ofkemampuan [[capitalismkapitalisme]] tountuk destroymenghancurkan theprakondisi-prakondisi preconditions of criticalKritis, revolutionary [[consciousnesskesadaran]] revolusioner. ThisIni meantberarti arrivingtiba atpada akesadaran sophisticatedcanggih awarenesstentang ofdimensi thekedalaman depthdi dimensionmana inpenindasan whichsosial socialmempertahankan oppressiondirinya sustains itselfsendiri. Ini It alsojuga meantmerupakan theawal beginningdari ofpengakuan [[criticalteori theoryKritis]]'s recognitionterhadap ofideologi ideologysebagai asbagian partdari ofdasar-dasar thestruktur foundationssosial. ofInstitut socialini structure.dan berbagai Thepihak Instituteyang andikut variousbekerja collaboratorssama haddengannya amempunyai giganticdampak effectyang onhebat (especiallyterhadap [[Unitedilmu States|Americansosial]]) (khususnya [[socialAmerika scienceSerikat|Amerika]]) throughmelalui theirkarya workmereka ''The Authoritarian Personality'', which(“Kepribadian yang [[Otoritarianisme|Otoriter]]), conductedyang extensivemelakukan [[empiricalpenelitian researchempiris]] yang luas, usingdengan sociologicalmenggunakan andkategori-kategori sosiologis dan [[psychoanalysis|psychoanalyticpsikoanalisis]] categories, inuntuk ordermenggambarkan tokekuatan-kekuatan characterizeyang themendorong forcesindividu thatuntuk ledberafiliasi individualsdengan toatau affiliatemendukung withgerakan-gerakan oratau supportpartai-partai [[fascismfasisme|fascistfasis]] movements or parties. <!--The study found the assertion of [[Universal (metaphysics)|universals]], or even [[truth]], to be a hallmark of fascism; by calling into question any notion of a higher ideal, or a shared mission for humanity, ''The Authoritarian Personality'' contributed greatly to the emergence of the [[counterculture]].
 
The nature of Marxism itself formed the second focus of the Institute, and in this context the concept of ''critical theory'' originated. The term served several purposes - first, it contrasted from traditional notions of theory, which were largely either positivist or scientific. Second, the term allowed them to escape the politically charged label of "Marxism." Third, it explicitly linked them with the "critical philosophy" of [[Immanuel Kant]], where the term "critique" meant philosophical reflection on the limits of claims made for certain kinds of knowledge and a direct connection between such critique and the emphasis on moral autonomy. In an intellectual context defined by dogmatic positivism and scientism on the one hand and dogmatic "scientific socialism" on the other, critical theory meant to rehabilitate through such a philosophically critical approach an orientation toward revolutionary agency, or at least its possibility, at a time when it seemed in decline.
 
Finally, in the context of both Marxist-Leninist and Social-Democratic orthodoxy, which emphasized Marxism as a new kind of positive science, they were linking up with the implicit epistemology of [[Karl Marx]]'s work, which presented itself as critique, as in Marx's "Capital: a critique of political economy", wanting to emphasize that Marx was attempting to create a new kind of critical analysis oriented toward the unity of theory and revolutionary practice rather than a new kind of positive science. In the 1960s, [[Jürgen Habermas]] raised the epistemological discussion to a new level in his "Knowledge and Human Interests" (1968), by identifying critical knowledge as based on principles that differentiated it either from the natural sciences or the humanities, through its orientation to self-reflection and emancipation.
 
Although Horkheimer's distinction between traditional and critical theory in one sense merely repeated Marx's dictum that philosophers have always [[interpretation|interpreted]] the world and the point is to change it, the Institute, in its critique of ideology, took on such philosophical currents as [[positivism]], [[phenomenology]], [[existentialism]], and [[pragmatism]], with an implied [[critique]] of contemporary Marxism, which had turned [[dialectics]] into an alternate [[science]] or [[metaphysics]]. The Institute attempted to reformulate dialectics as a concrete [[scientific method|method]], continually aware of the specific social roots of thought and of the specific constellation of forces that affected the possibility of liberation. Accordingly, critical theory rejected the materialist metaphysics of [[orthodox Marxism]]. For Horkheimer and his associates, materialism meant the orientation of theory towards practice and towards the fulfillment of human needs, not a metaphysical statement about the nature of reality.
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The second phase of Frankfurt School critical theory centres principally on two works that rank as classics of twentieth-century thought: [[Max Horkheimer|Horkheimer]]'s and [[Theodor Adorno|Adorno]]'s ''[[Dialectic of Enlightenment]]'' (1944) and Adorno's ''[[Minima Moralia]]'' (1951). The authors wrote both works during the Institute's American [[exile]] in the Nazi period. While retaining much of the Marxian analysis, in these works critical theory has shifted its emphasis. The critique of capitalism has turned into a critique of [[Western civilization]] as a whole. Indeed, the ''Dialectic of Enlightenment'' uses the ''[[Odyssey]]'' as a paradigm for the analysis of [[bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] consciousness. Horkheimer and Adorno already present in these works many themes that have come to dominate the social thought of recent years: the domination of [[nature]] appears as central to Western civilization long before [[ecology]] had become a [[catchphrase]] of the day.
 
The analysis of [[reason]] now goes one stage further. The [[rationality]] of Western civilization appears as a fusion of domination and of [[technology|technological]] rationality, bringing all of external and internal nature under the power of the human subject. In the process, however, the subject itself gets swallowed up, and no social force analogous to the [[proletariat]] can be identified that will enable the subject to [[liberty|emancipate]] itself. Hence the subtitle of ''Minima Moralia'': "Reflections from Damaged Life". In Adorno's words,
 
::"For since the overwhelming [[objectivity]] of historical movement in its present phase consists so far only in the dissolution of the subject, without yet giving rise to a new one, individual [[experience]] necessarily bases itself on the old subject, now historically condemned, which is still for-itself, but no longer in-itself. The subject still feels sure of its [[Wiktionary:autonomy|autonomy]], but the nullity demonstrated to subjects by the [[concentration camp]] is already overtaking the form of [[subjectivity]] itself."
Baris 34 ⟶ 36:
Consequently, at a time when it appears that reality itself has become ideology, the greatest contribution that critical theory can make is to explore the dialectical contradictions of individual subjective experience on the one hand, and to preserve the [[truth]] of theory on the other. Even the dialectic can become a means to domination: "Its truth or untruth, therefore, is not inherent in the method itself, but in its intention in the historical process." And this intention must be toward integral [[Freedom (political)|freedom]] and [[happiness]]: "the only philosophy which can be responsibly practised in face of despair is the attempt to contemplate all things as they would present themselves from the standpoint of redemption". How far from orthodox Marxism is Adorno's conclusion: "But beside the demand thus placed on thought, the question of the reality or unreality of redemption itself hardly matters."
 
Adorno, a trained musician, wrote ''The Philosophy of Modern Music'', in which he, in essence, polemicizes against [[beauty]] itself -- because it has become part of the ideology of advanced capitalist society and the false consciousness that contributes to domination by prettifying it. Avant-garde art and music preserve the truth by capturing the reality of human suffering. Hence:
 
::"What radical music perceives is the untransfigured suffering of man... The seismographic registration of traumatic shock becomes, at the same time, the technical structural law of music. It forbids continuity and development. Musical language is polarized according to its extreme; towards gestures of shock resembling bodily convulsions on the one hand, and on the other towards a crystalline standstill of a human being whom anxiety causes to freeze in her tracks... Modern music sees absolute oblivion as its goal. It is the surviving message of despair from the shipwrecked."
Baris 54 ⟶ 56:
 
== Para pemikir dan pakar utama Mazhab Frankfurt ==
[[Berkas:Alfredschmidt.jpg|jmpl|Alfred Schmidt, pada [[1980-an]] di [[Universitas Goethe Frankfurt|Universitas Frankfurt]].]]
*[[Theodor W. Adorno]]
 
*[[Max Horkheimer]]
* [[WalterTheodor W. BenjaminAdorno]]
* [[HerbertMax MarcuseHorkheimer]]
* [[AlfredWalter Sohn-RethelBenjamin]]
* [[LeoHerbert LöwenthalMarcuse]]
* [[Alfred Sohn-Rethel]]
*[[Franz Leopold Neumann|Franz Neumann]]▼
* [[FranzLeo OppenheimerLöwenthal]]
▲* [[Franz Leopold Neumann|Franz Neumann]]
*[[Friedrich Pollock]]
* [[ErichFranz FrommOppenheimer]]
* [[AlfredFriedrich SchmidtPollock]]
* [[JürgenErich HabermasFromm]]
* [[OskarAlfred NegtSchmidt]]
* [[Karl A.Jürgen WittfogelHabermas]]
* [[SusanOskar Buck-MorssNegt]]
* [[AxelKarl A. HonnethWittfogel]]
* [[Susan Buck-Morss]]
* [[Axel Honneth]]
 
<!--==Critics of the Frankfurt School==
Several camps of criticism of the Frankfurt School have emerged.
 
*One criticism is that the intellectual perspective of the Frankfurt School is really a romantic, [[academic elitism|elitist]] critique of mass culture dressed-up in [[neo-Marxism|neo-Marxist]] clothing: what really bothers the critical theorists in this view is not social oppression, but that the masses like [[Ian Fleming]] and [[The Beatles]] instead of [[Samuel Beckett]] and [[Anton Webern|Webern]].
*Another criticism, originating from the Left, is that critical theory is a form of bourgeois idealism that has no inherent relation to political practice and is totally isolated from any ongoing revolutionary movement. ▼
 
▲*Another criticism, originating from the Left, is that critical theory is a form of bourgeois idealism that has no inherent relation to political practice and is totally isolated from any ongoing revolutionary movement.
 
Both of these criticisms were captured in [[Georg Lukács]]'s phrase "Grand Hotel Abyss" as a syndrome he imputed to the members of the Frankfurt School.-->
 
;Kritikus terkemuka terhadap Mazhab Frankfurt
:* [[Henryk Grossman]]
:* [[Georg Lukács]]
:* [[Umberto Eco]]
 
== Rujukan ==
* Martin Jay. ''The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute for Social Research 1923-1950''. Berkeley, [[University of California Press]], 1996. ISBN 0-520-20423-9.
* Rolf Wiggershaus. ''The Frankfurt School: Its History, Theories and Political Significance''. Cambridge, Mass.: The [[MIT Press]], 1995. ISBN 0-262-73113-4.
* Jeremy J. Shapiro, "The Critical Theory of Frankfurt", ''Times Literary Supplement'', Oct. 4, 1974, No. 3,787. (Bahan-bahan untuk penerbitan ini telah digunakan atau diadaptasi untuk artikel ini, dengan izin.)
 
==Bacaan Lihat pula lanjut==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*[[Marxisme budaya]]
* Arato, Andrew and Eike Gebhardt, Eds. ''The Essential Frankfurt School Reader''. New York: Continuum, 1982.
*[[Teori Kritis (Mazhab Frankfurt)]]▼
* Bernstein, Jay (ed.). ''The Frankfurt School: Critical Assessments'' I–VI. New York: Routledge, 1994.
*[[Mazhab praxis]]
* Benhabib, Seyla. ''Critique, Norm, and Utopia: A Study of the Foundations of Critical Theory''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986.
* Bottomore, Tom. ''The Frankfurt School and its Critics''. New York: Routledge, 2002.
* Bronner, Stephen Eric and Douglas MacKay Kellner (eds.). ''Critical Theory and Society: A Reader''. New York: Routledge, 1989.
* Brosio, Richard A. [http://libx.bsu.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/BSMngrph&CISOPTR=21&CISOBOX=1&REC=11 ''The Frankfurt School: An Analysis of the Contradictions and Crises of Liberal Capitalist Societies.''] 1980.
* Crone, Michael (ed.): ''Vertreter der Frankfurter Schule in den Hörfunkprogrammen 1950–1992.'' [[Hessischer Rundfunk]], Frankfurt am Main 1992. (Bibliography.)
* Friedman, George. ''The Political Philosophy of the Frankfurt School''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1981.
* Held, David. ''Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to Habermas''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.
* Gerhardt, Christina. "Frankfurt School". ''The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest, 1500 to the Present''. 8 vols. Ed. Immanuel Ness. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2009. 12–13.
* {{cite book | author=Immanen, Mikko | title=A Promise of Concreteness: Martin Heidegger's Unacknowledged Role in the Formation of Frankfurt School in the Weimar Republic | publisher=University of Helsinki | type=PhD thesis | year=2017 | isbn=978-951-51-3205-5 }}
* Jay, Martin. ''The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute for Social Research 1923–1950''. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. 1996.
* {{Cite book| publisher = Verso| isbn = 978-1-78478-568-0| last = Jeffries| first = Stuart| title = Grand Hotel Abyss: The Lives of the Frankfurt School| url = https://archive.org/details/grandhotelabyssl0000jeff| location = London – Brooklyn, New York| date = 2016 }}
* Kompridis, Nikolas. ''Critique and Disclosure: Critical Theory between Past and Future''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2006.
* Postone, Moishe. ''Time, Labor, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx's Critical Theory''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
* Schwartz, Frederic J. ''Blind Spots: Critical Theory and the History of Art in Twentieth-Century Germany''. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2005.
* Shapiro, Jeremy J. "The Critical Theory of Frankfurt". ''Times Literary Supplement'' 3 (4 October 1974) 787.
* Scheuerman, William E. ''Frankfurt School Perspectives on Globalization, Democracy, and the Law''. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2008.
* Wiggershaus, Rolf. ''The Frankfurt School: Its History, Theories and Political Significance''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1995.
* Wheatland, Thomas. ''The Frankfurt School in Exile''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009.
{{Refend}}
 
== Pranala luar ==
* {{en}} [http://www.ifs.uni-frankfurt.de/english/history.htm Sejarah Institute of Social Research] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120902023351/http://www.ifs.uni-frankfurt.de/english/history.htm |date=2012-09-02 }}
* {{en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20070310124255/http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kellner/illumina%20Folder/ Illuminations - Proyek Teori Kritis]
* {{en}} [http://home.cwru.edu/~ngb2/Pages/Intro.html Pengantar ke dalam Mazhab Frankfurt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060301110006/http://home.cwru.edu/~ngb2/Pages/Intro.html |date=2006-03-01 }}
* {{en}} [http://www.marxists.org/subject/frankfurt-school/ Mazhab Frankfurt (Arsip Internet Marxis)]
* {{en}} [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/marcuse/works/eros-civilisation/ Cuplikan dari "Eros and Civilization"]
* {{es}} [http://www.boulesis.com/especial/escueladefrankfurt/ Escuela de Frankfurt]
 
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[[Category:Teori Marxis]]▼
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