Glukosamin: Perbedaan antara revisi

| ImageFileL1 = Alpha-D-glucosamine.pngsvg

Glukosamin pertama kali diidentifikasi oleh [[Dr. Georg Ledderhose]] pada tahun 1876, tapitetapi struktur [[stereokimianya|stereokimia]] tidak sepenuhnya diketahui sampai ditemukan oleh [[Walter Haworth]] pada tahun 1939.<ref name="carb">{{cite book

| last =Horton

| first =Derek

| authorlink =

| coauthors =Wander, J.D.

| title =The Carbohydrates Vol IB

| publisher =Academic Press

| date =1980

| location =New York

| pages =727-728

| url =

| doi =

| id =

| isbn =042-556351-5 }}</ref>

D-Glukosamin dibuat secara alami dalam bentuk glukosamin-6-fosfat, dan merupakan prekursor biokimia dari semua [[gula amino|gula yang mengandung nitrogen]].<ref>Roseman S. "Reflections on glycobiology," ''J Biol Chem'', 2001 November 9; 276(45):41527-42. PMID 11553646. [http://www.jbc.org/cgi/content/full/276/45/41527 Full Text Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410142058/http://www.jbc.org/cgi/content/full/276/45/41527 |date=2008-04-10 }}</ref> Specifically, glucosamine-6-phosphate is synthesized from [[fructose-6-phosphate]] and [[glutamine]]<ref>Ghosh S, Blumenthal HJ, Davidson E, Roseman S. "Glucosamine metabolism. V. Enzymatic synthesis of glucosamine 6-phosphate", ''J Biol Chem'', 1960 May; . PMID 13827775. [http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/235/5/1265 PDF online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090526062334/http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/235/5/1265 |date=2009-05-26 }}.</ref> as the first step of the hexosamine biosynthesis pathway.<ref>{{Cite [web |url=http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/reaction/polysacc/UDPGlcN.html |title=International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology] |access-date=2008-02-05 |archive-date=2017-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826223150/http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/reaction/polysacc/UDPGlcN.html |dead-url=no }}</ref> Produk akhir dari lintasan ini adalah [[UDP-N-asetilglukosamin]] (UDP-GlcNAc), yang kemudian digunakan untuk membentuk [[glikosaminoglikan]], [[proteoglikan]], dan [[glikolipid]].

Glukosamin dapat diperoleh dari suplemen makanan. Dosis garam glukosamin (dalam bentuk [[glukosamin sulfat]] atau [[glukosamin hidroklorida]]) yang biasa dikonsumsi adalah sebesar 1,500 &nbsp;mg per hari.Umumnya, glukosamin yang umum dijual merupakan glukosamin dalam bentuk glukosamine sulfat dan glukosamin hidroklorida.<ref>[{{Cite web |url=http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/nmdrugprofiles/nutsupdrugs/glu_0122.shtml |title=PDR Health] |access-date=2008-02-05 |archive-date=2008-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704065358/http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/nmdrugprofiles/nutsupdrugs/glu_0122.shtml |dead-url=no }}</ref> Glukosamin umumnya dijual bersama kombinasi dengan suplemen lain seperti [[kondroitin sulfat]] dan [[metilsulfonilmetan]].

Berbagai studi klinis telah membuktikan bahwa glukosamin aman untuk dikonsumsi. Walaupun demikian, isu [[alergi]] masih sering mengikuti konsumsi glukosamin ini karena umumnya glukosamin diperoleh dari cangkang kerang dan semacamnya (walaupun pada kenyataanya, bahan alergen penyebab alergi ada di dalam daging kerang, bukan pada cangkangnya).<ref>Gray H, Hutcheson P, Slavin R. "Is glucosamine safe in patients with seafood allergy?" ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'', 2004; 114(2):459-60. PMID 15341031.</ref> Sumber alternatif lain adalah penggunaan cendawan pada fermentasi jagung. Beberapa sumber lain menyebutkan bahwa konsumsi berlebih glukosamin berkontribusi pada diabetes. <ref name="Buse"/> tapitetapi beberapa referensi lain menyangkal.<ref>Scroggie DA, Albright A, Harris MD. "The effect of glucosamine-chondroitin supplementation on glycosylated hemoglobin levels in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a placebo-controlled, double-blinded, randomized clinical trial," ''Arch Intern Med'', 2003 July 14; 163(13):1587-90. PMID 12860582.</ref>.<ref>Tannis A.J, Barban J, Conquer J.A. Effect of glucosamine supplementation on fasting and non-fasting plasma glucose and serum insulin concentrations in healthy individuals. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2004; 12 (6): 506-511.</ref><ref>Monauni T, Zenti MG, Cretti A, Daniels MC, Targher G, Caruso B, Caputo M, Mc Clain D, Del Prato S, Giaccari A, Muggeo M, Bonora E, Bonadonna RC. Effects of glucosamine infusion on insulin secretion and insulin action in humans. Diabetes. 2000 49; 926-935.</ref> Terlepas dari isu tersebut, sebuah penelitian lain menunjukkan bahwa asupan glukosamin sesuai dosis yang dianjurkan tidak berpengaruh terhadap intolerasi glukosa dan resistensi insulin sebagaimana yang dikhawatirkan pasien diabetes.<ref>Anderson JW, Nicolosi RJ, Borzelleca JF. Glucosamine effects in humans: a review of effects on glucose metabolism, side effects, safety considerations and efficacy. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2005; 43 (2): 187- 201</ref><ref>Muniyappa R, Kame RJ, Hall G, Grandon SK, Bronstein JA, Ver M.R, Hortin GL, Quon MJ. Oral glucosamine for 6 weeks at standard doses does not cause or worsen insulin resistance or endothelial dysfunction in lean or obese subjects. Diabetes. 2006; 55 (11): 3142-50.</ref><ref>Powels M, Jacobs JR, Span PN, Lutterman JA, Smits P, Tack CJ. Short – term glucosamine infusion does not affect insulin sensitivity in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001; 86:2099-2103.</ref><ref>Biggee B, Blinn CM, Nuite M, Sibert JE, Mc Alindon TE. Effects of oral glucosamine sulphate on serum glucose and insulin during an oral glucose tolerance test of subjects with osteoarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2007, 66 (2): 260-262.</ref>

* [http://www.hilo.co.id/index-indonesia.php HiLo Joint+] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319143316/http://www.hilo.co.id/index-indonesia.php |date=2021-03-19 }}

* [http://www.rottapharm.com Rottapharm Group] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808070502/http://rottapharm.com/ |date=2018-08-08 }} European patent-holder

* [http://www.arthritis.org/conditions/alttherapies/Glucosamine.asp General Glucosamine and Chondroitin Sulfate information] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061105140135/http://www.arthritis.org/conditions/alttherapies/Glucosamine.asp |date=2006-11-05 }} from the Arthritis Foundation.

* "[http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/reaction/polysacc/UDPGlcN.html UDP-N-acetylglucosamine Biosynthesis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826223150/http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/reaction/polysacc/UDPGlcN.html |date=2017-08-26 }}," Diagram including [[IUBMB]] nomenclature and links.

* [http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/nmdrugprofiles/nutsupdrugs/glu_0122.shtml PDR Health] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704065358/http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/nmdrugprofiles/nutsupdrugs/glu_0122.shtml |date=2008-07-04 }} Summary of drug information on glucosamine from the publishers of the ''[[Physician's Desk Reference]]''.

* "[http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00032890 Glucosamine/Chondroitin Arthritis Intervention Trial (GAIT)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180420074641/https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00032890 |date=2018-04-20 }}," ClinicalTrials.gov registration and information.

* "[http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00065377 Effects of Oral Glucosamine on Insulin and Blood Vessel Activity in Normal and Obese People] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061114170850/http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00065377 |date=2006-11-14 }}," ClinicalTrials.gov information.

* "[http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/feb2006/nccam-22.htm NIH News: Efficacy of Glucosamine and Chondroitin Sulfate May Depend on Level of Osteoarthritis Pain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016063840/http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/feb2006/nccam-22.htm |date=2015-10-16 }}," Wednesday, [[February 22]], [[2006]].