Bahasa Inggris: Perbedaan antara revisi
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Baris 1:
{{lindungidarianon2|small=yes}}
{{Infobox language
| image= William Shakespeare - Sonnet XXX - Rapenburg 30, Leiden (cropped).JPG
| name = Bahasa Inggris
| nativename = ''English language''
| pronunciation = {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|ŋ|ɡ|l|ᵻ|ʃ}}{{sfn|Oxford Learner's Dictionary|2015|loc=Entry: [http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/pronunciation/english/english_1 English – Pronunciation]}}
| region =
| speakers = [[Bahasa pertama|L1]]: {{nowrap|372,9 juta}}
| date = 2022
| ref = <ref name="ethnologue">{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/|title=What are the top 200 most spoken languages?|website=Ethnologue|date=2022|access-date=2023-04-12|archive-date=2023-06-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618002011/https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/|dead-url=no}}</ref>
| speakers2 = [[bahasa kedua|L2]]: {{nowrap|1,080 miliar}} (2022)<ref name="ethnologue" /><br/>~1,452 miliar penutur secara keseluruhan
| familycolor = Indo-Eropa
| fam2 = {{PBahasa|Jermanik}}
| fam3 = {{PBahasa|Jermanik Barat}}
| fam4 = [[Rumpun bahasa Jermanik Laut Utara|Jermanik Laut Utara]]
| fam5 = [[Rumpun bahasa Anglo-Frisia|Anglo-Frisia]]
| fam6 = [[Rumpun bahasa Anglik|Anglik]]
| ancestor = {{PBahasa|Proto-Indo-Eropa}}
| ancestor2 = {{PBahasa|Proto-Jermanik}}
| ancestor3 = {{PBahasa|Inggris Kuno}}
| ancestor4 = {{PBahasa|Inggris Pertengahan}}
| ancestor5 = {{PBahasa|Inggris Modern Awal}}
| script = {{plainlist|
* [[Alfabet Latin|Latin]] ([[Alfabet bahasa Inggris]])
* [[Alfabet Rune Anglo-Saxon]] (kuno)
* [[Braille bahasa Inggris]], [[Unified English Braille]]
}}
| nation = {{plainlist|
* [[Daftar negara yang menuturkan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa resmi|58 negara]]
* [[Daftar negara yang menuturkan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa resmi|31 entitas tak berdaulat]]
{{Collapsible list |titlestyle= font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; |title=Berbagai organisaai|
* [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]
* [[Uni Eropa]]
* [[Persemakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa]]
* [[Majelis Eropa]]
* [[International Criminal Court|ICC]]
* [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]]
* [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]]
* [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]
* [[NATO]]
* [[WTO]]
* [[North American Free Trade Agreement|NAFTA]]
* [[Organization of American States|OAS]]
* [[OECD]]
* [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|OIC]]
* [[OPEC]]
* [[GUAM Organisasi untuk Demokrasi dan Pembangunan Ekonomi]]
* [[Pacific Islands Forum|PIF]]
* [[Perjanjian UKUSA]]
* [[ASEAN]]
* [[Masyarakat Ekonomi ASEAN|MEA]]
* [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|SAARC]]
* [[Komunitas Karibia]]
* [[Dewan Turkik]]
* [[International Organization of Turkic Culture|Türksoy]]
* [[Economic Cooperation Organization|ECO]]
}}
}}
| iso1 = en
| iso2 = eng
| iso3 = eng
| lingua = 52-ABA
| notice = IPA
| sign = ''[[Manually coded English]]''<br/>(sistem beragam)
| glotto = stan1293
| glottorefname = English
| map = Anglospeak (subnational version).svg
| mapcaption = {{legend3|#346699|Negara maupun teritori yang menggunakan bahasa Inggris dan [[bahasa kreol]] turunan sebagai bahasa keseharian mayoritas penduduknya}}
{{legend3|#99ccff|Negara maupun teritori yang menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa resmi ataupun bahasa administratif, tetapi tidak digunakan dalam keseharian ataupun tidak dituturkan oleh [[penutur jati]] dalam jumlah besar}}
| minority = {{plainlist|
* [[Malaysia]]
* [[Sri Lanka]]
}}
|status_konservasi=NE
|HAM=ya
|pranala_HAM=http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/#a1
|contoh_teks=All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
|contoh_suara=Universal Declaration of Human Rights - eng - ks - Article 1.ogg
}}
'''Bahasa Inggris''' (''English language'') adalah sebuah [[Rumpun bahasa Jermanik|bahasa Jermanik]] yang pertama kali dituturkan di [[Inggris]] pada [[Abad Pertengahan|Abad Pertengahan Awal]] dan saat ini merupakan bahasa yang paling umum digunakan di seluruh dunia.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mydans|first=Seth|date=14-05-2007|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/14/world/asia/14iht-14englede.5705671.html|title=Across cultures, English is the word|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=21-09-2011|language=bahasa Inggris|archive-date=2021-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815214955/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/14/world/asia/14iht-14englede.5705671.html|dead-url=no}}</ref> Bahasa Inggris dituturkan sebagai bahasa pertama oleh mayoritas penduduk di berbagai negara, antara lain di [[Britania Raya|Inggris Raya]], [[Republik Irlandia|Irlandia]], [[Amerika Serikat]], [[Kanada]], [[Australia]], [[Selandia Baru]], dan sejumlah negara-negara [[Karibia]]; serta menjadi [[bahasa resmi]] di hampir 60 negara berdaulat. Bahasa Inggris adalah [[bahasa ibu]] ketiga yang paling banyak dituturkan di seluruh dunia, setelah [[bahasa Mandarin]] dan [[bahasa Spanyol|Spanyol]].<ref name="ethnologue" /> Bahasa Inggris juga digunakan sebagai [[bahasa kedua]] dan bahasa resmi oleh [[Uni Eropa]], [[Negara Persemakmuran]], dan [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]], serta beragam organisasi lainnya.
Bahasa Inggris berkembang pertama kali di kerajaan-kerajaan [[Anglia-Sachsen]] dan di wilayah yang saat ini merupakan [[Skotlandia]] tenggara. Setelah meluasnya pengaruh Inggris Raya pada abad ke-17 dan ke-20 melalui [[Imperium Britania Raya|Imperium Inggris Raya]], bahasa Inggris tersebar luas di seluruh dunia.{{sfn|Ammon|2006|p=2245-2247}}{{sfn|Schneider|2007|p=1}}{{sfn|Mazrui|Mazrui|1998|p=21}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fakultas Adab dan Humaniora UIN Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung|last2=Kustanti|first2=Dewi|last3=Prihmayadi|first3=Yadi|date=2017-06-20|title=PROBLEMATIKA BUDAYA BERBICARA BAHASA INGGRIS|url=https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/jat/article/view/1798/1197|journal=Al-Tsaqafa: Jurnal Ilmiah Peradaban Islam|volume=14|issue=1|pages=161–174|doi=10.15575/al-tsaqafa.v14i1.1798|access-date=2023-01-07|archive-date=2023-01-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107061906/https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/jat/article/view/1798/1197|dead-url=no| issn=0216-5937}}</ref> Di samping itu, luasnya penggunaan bahasa Inggris juga disebabkan oleh penyebaran kebudayaan dan teknologi Amerika Serikat yang mendominasi di sepanjang abad ke-20.<ref>Hjarvard, Stig (2004) [https://web.archive.org/web/20080908064103/http://www.nordicom.gu.se/common/publ_pdf/157_075-098.pdf "The globalization of language: How the media contribute to the spread of English and the emergence of medialects"] Trans. Charly Hultén. ''Nordicom Review''. Retrieved 30 December 2014.</ref> Hal-hal tersebut telah menyebabkan bahasa Inggris saat ini menjadi [[Bahasa internasional|bahasa utama]] dan secara tidak resmi (''[[de facto]]'') dianggap sebagai [[basantara|bahasa penghubung]] (''lingua franca'') di berbagai belahan dunia.{{sfn|Crystal|2003a|p=6}}{{sfn|Wardhaugh|2010|p=55}}
Menurut sejarahnya, bahasa Inggris berasal dari peleburan beragam dialek yang saling berkerabat, yang di zaman sekarang secara kolektif dikenal sebagai [[bahasa Inggris Kuno]], yang dibawa ke pantai timur [[Pulau Britania Raya]] oleh pendatang [[Suku bangsa Jermanik|Jermanik]] (Anglia-Sachsen) pada abad ke-5; kata ''English'' berasal dari nama [[suku Anglia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/English |title=English – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=25 April 2007 |accessdate=4 November 2012 |archive-date=2015-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325140932/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/english |dead-url=no }}</ref> Bangsa Anglia-Sachsen ini sendiri berasal dari wilayah [[Anglia]] (saat ini [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Jerman]]). Bahasa Inggris awal juga dipengaruhi oleh [[bahasa Nordik Kuno]] setelah [[Viking]] menaklukkan Inggris pada abad ke-9 dan ke-10.
[[Penaklukan Inggris oleh Norman]] pada abad ke-11 menyebabkan bahasa Inggris juga mendapat pengaruh dari [[bahasa Norman|bahasa Prancis Norman]], dan kosakata serta [[ejaan]] dalam bahasa Inggris mulai dipengaruhi oleh [[bahasa Latin]] Romawi (meskipun bahasa Inggris sendiri bukan termasuk [[rumpun bahasa Roman]]),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab13 |title=Words on the brain: from 1 million years ago? |work=History of language |accessdate=5 September 2010 |archive-date=2013-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928225527/http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ab13 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.orbilat.com/Influences_of_Romance/English/RIFL-English-Latin-The_Inflluences_on_Old_English.html |title=Latin Influences on Old English |author=Baugh, Albert C. and Cable, Thomas |year=1978 |work=An excerpt from Foreign Influences on Old English |accessdate=5 September 2010 |archive-date=2010-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127073603/http://orbilat.com/Influences_of_Romance/English/RIFL-English-Latin-The_Inflluences_on_Old_English.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> yang kemudian dikenal dengan [[bahasa Inggris Pertengahan]]. [[Pergeseran Vokal Besar]] yang dimulai di Inggris bagian selatan pada abad ke-15 adalah salah satu peristiwa bersejarah yang menandai peralihan bahasa Inggris Pertengahan menjadi [[bahasa Inggris Modern]].
Selain bahasa Anglia-Sachsen dan [[bahasa Prancis Norman]], sejumlah besar kata dalam bahasa Inggris juga berakar dari [[bahasa Latin]], karena bahasa Latin adalah ''lingua franca'' [[Kekristenan|Gereja Kristen]] dan bahasa utama di kalangan intelektual Eropa,<ref name="Weissbort">Daniel Weissbort (2006). "Translation: theory and practice: a historical reader". p.100. Oxford University Press, 2006</ref> dan telah menjadi dasar kosakata bagi bahasa Inggris modern.
Karena telah mengalami perpaduan beragam kata dari berbagai bahasa di sepanjang sejarah, bahasa Inggris modern memiliki kosakata yang sangat banyak, dengan ejaan yang kompleks dan tidak teratur (''irregular''), khususnya vokal. Bahasa Inggris modern tidak hanya merupakan perpaduan dari bahasa-bahasa Eropa, tetapi juga dari berbagai bahasa di seluruh dunia. ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' memuat daftar lebih dari 250.000 kata berbeda, tidak termasuk istilah-istilah teknis, sains, dan ''[[slang]]'' (bahasa gaul) yang jumlahnya juga sangat banyak.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords|title=How many words are there in the English Language?|website=Oxford Dictionaries|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=bahasa Inggris|accessdate=19-02-2016|archive-date=2011-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130011051/http://oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vistawide.com/languages/language_statistics.htm |title=Vista Worldwide Language Statistics |publisher=Vistawide.com |accessdate=31-10-2010 |language=bahasa Inggris |archive-date=2016-11-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120144244/http://www.vistawide.com/languages/language_statistics.htm |dead-url=no }}</ref>
== Etimologi ==
Kata ''English'' berasal dari eponim ''Angle'', nama suku Jermanik yang diperkirakan berasal dari wilayah Angeln di [[Jutlandia]] (sekarang Jerman utara).<ref>{{OEtymD|english}}</ref> Untuk kemungkinan [[etimologi]] kata ini, lihat artikel [[Angeln]] dan [[suku Anglia]].
== Signifikasi ==
{{see also|Anglosfir}}
Bahasa Inggris modern, kadang digambarkan sebagai ''lingua franca'' global pertama,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Global English: gift or curse? |doi=10.1017/S0266078405002075 |year=2005 |last1=Smith |first1=Ross |journal=English Today |volume=21 |issue=2 |page=56}}</ref><ref name = "Graddol"/> adalah [[Imperialisme linguistik|bahasa dominan]], atau dalam beberapa kasus bahkan ditetapkan sebagai [[bahasa bantu internasional|bahasa internasional]] dalam bidang komunikasi, sains, teknologi informasi, bisnis, kelautan,<ref>{{cite web|title=IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases|url=http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/StandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx|publisher=International Maritime Organization|accessdate=18-02-2016|archive-date=2011-10-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003233938/http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/StandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx|dead-url=yes}}</ref> kedirgantaraan,<ref>{{cite web|title=FAQ – Language proficiency requirements for licence holders – In which languages does a licence holder need to demonstrate proficiency?|url=http://www.icao.int/icao/en/trivia/peltrgFAQ.htm#23|publisher=International Civil Aviation Organization – Air Navigation Bureau|accessdate=02-06-2011|archive-date=2009-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220142943/http://icao.int/icao/en/trivia/peltrgFAQ.htm#23|dead-url=no}}</ref> hiburan, radio, dan diplomasi.<ref name="triumph">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=883997|title=The triumph of English|accessdate=26-03-2007|date=20-12-2001|publisher=The Economist|archive-date=2017-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326145147/http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=883997|dead-url=no}}{{subscription}}</ref> Penyebaran bahasa Inggris di luar [[Kepulauan Britania]] dimulai dengan pertumbuhan Imperium Britania, dan pada abad ke-19 jangkauannya telah global.<ref name="wwenglish">{{cite web |url=http://www.ehistling-pub.meotod.de/01_lec06.php |title=Lecture 7: World-Wide English |accessdate=26-03-2007 |publisher=<sub>E</sub>HistLing |archive-date=2007-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070401233529/http://www.ehistling-pub.meotod.de/01_lec06.php |dead-url=unfit }}</ref> Setelah [[Imperium Britania|kolonisasi Britania]] sejak abad ke-16 hingga ke-19, bahasa Inggris menjadi bahasa dominan di Amerika Serikat, Kanada, Australia, dan Selandia Baru. Pertumbuhan pengaruh budaya dan ekonomi Amerika Serikat dan statusnya sebagai [[negara adidaya]] global sejak [[Perang Dunia II]] turut mempercepat penyebaran bahasa Inggris ke seluruh dunia.<ref name="Graddol">{{cite web |url=http://www.britishcouncil.org/de/learning-elt-future.pdf |format=PDF |title=The Future of English? |accessdate=15-04-2007 |year=1997 |author=[[David Graddol]] |publisher=The British Council |archive-date=2014-06-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140628012917/http://www.britishcouncil.org/de/learning-elt-future.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Bahasa Inggris menggantikan [[bahasa Jerman]] sebagai bahasa sains yang dominan dalam penghargaan [[Hadiah Nobel]] pada paruh kedua abad ke-20.<ref>Graphics: [https://web.archive.org/web/20140617193031/http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/scilang.html English replacing German as language of Science Nobel Prize winners]. From [[Jürgen Schmidhuber|J. Schmidhuber]] (2010), [https://web.archive.org/web/20140327012415/http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/nobelshare.html Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th Century] at [https://web.archive.org/web/20140102222720/http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/sci.html arXiv:1009.2634v1]</ref> Bahasa Inggris telah menyamai dan bahkan telah melampaui [[bahasa Prancis]] sebagai bahasa dominan dalam dunia diplomasi pada paruh kedua abad ke-19.
Kemampuan berbahasa Inggris telah menjadi kebutuhan dalam sejumlah bidang ilmu, pekerjaan, dan profesi semisal [[kedokteran]] dan [[komputasi]]; sebagai akibatnya, lebih dari satu miliar orang di dunia bisa berbahasa Inggris setidaknya pada tingkat dasar (lihat [[bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua atau internasional]]). Bahasa Inggris adalah salah satu dari enam bahasa resmi Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/languages.shtml |title=UN official languages |publisher=Un.org |date= |accessdate=20-04-2013 |archive-date=2011-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826011927/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/languages.shtml |dead-url=no }}</ref>
Salah satu dampak pertumbuhan bahasa Inggris adalah berkurangnya [[Ragam bahasa|keragaman bahasa]] di berbagai belahan dunia. Pengaruh bahasa Inggris berperan penting dalam [[kepunahan bahasa]].<ref name="Crystal-LanguageDeath">{{cite book|last = Crystal|first = David|authorlink = David Crystal|title = Language Death|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]|year = 2002|doi = 10.2277/0521012716|isbn = 0-521-01271-6 }}</ref> Sebaliknya, berbagai keragaman bahasa Inggris juga berpotensi menciptakan bahasa-bahasa baru dari waktu ke waktu, bersama dengan [[bahasa kreol]] dan [[bahasa pijin]].<ref name="Cheshire">{{cite book|last = Cheshire|first = Jenny|authorlink = Jenny Cheshire|title = English Around The World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]|year = 1991|doi = 10.2277/0521395658|isbn = 0-521-39565-8 }}</ref>
== Klasifikasi ==
[[Berkas:Europe germanic-languages 2.PNG|jmpl|
'''[[Rumpun bahasa Inggris|Anglik]]'''
{{legend|#FFA500|Inggris}}
{{legend|#FF8C00|[[Bahasa Skot|Skot]]}}
'''[[Rumpun bahasa Anglo-Frisia|Anglo-Frisia]]'''<br> mencakup Anglik dan
{{legend|#FFD700|[[Bahasa Frisia|Frisia]] (mencakup Frisia Barat, Utara, dan Saterland)}}
'''[[Rumpun bahasa Ingvaeonik|Jermanik Laut Utara]]'''<br> mencakup Anglo-Frisia dan
{{legend|#7FFF00|[[Bahasa Jerman Hilir|Jerman Hilir/Saksen Hilir]]}}
'''[[Rumpun bahasa Jermanik Barat|Jermanik Barat]]'''<br> mencakup Jermanik Laut Utara dan
{{legend|#FFFF00|[[Bahasa Belanda|Belanda]] (serta [[bahasa Afrikaans]] di Afrika)}}
...... [[Bahasa Jerman|Jerman]] ([[Bahasa Jerman Hulu|Hulu]]):
{{legend|#00FF00|[[Bahasa Jerman Tengah|Jerman Tengah]] (serta [[bahasa Luksemburg]])}}
{{legend|#008000|[[Bahasa Jerman Dataran Tinggi|Jerman Dataran Tinggi]]}}
...... [[Bahasa Yiddi|Yiddi]]]]
[[Berkas:West Germanic languages (simplified).svg|jmpl|ki|upright=1.13|Bahasa-bahasa [[Rumpun bahasa Jermanik Barat|Jermanik Barat]]]]
Bahasa Inggris merupakan bahasa [[Rumpun bahasa Indo-Eropa|Indo-Eropa]] yang termasuk ke dalam cabang [[Rumpun bahasa Jermanik Barat|Jermanik Barat]] dari subrumpun [[Rumpun bahasa Jermanik|Jermanik]].{{sfn|Bammesberger|1992|pp=29–30}} [[Bahasa Inggris Kuno]] berasal dari sebuah wilayah [[kesinambungan dialek]] dan budaya di sekujur pesisir [[Laut Utara]] [[Frisia]]. Ragam tutur di wilayah ini secara bertahap berkembang menjadi [[Rumpun bahasa Inggris|bahasa-bahasa Anglik]] di Kepulauan Britania serta [[Bahasa Frisia|bahasa-bahasa Frisia]] dan [[Jerman Hulu|Jerman Hulu/Saksen Hulu]] di [[Eropa Daratan]]. Bahasa-bahasa Frisia merupakan kerabat terdekat bagi bahasa Inggris dan bahasa-bahasa Anglik lainnya; keseluruhan bahasa ini tergabung dalam subkelompok [[Rumpun bahasa Anglo-Frisia|Anglo-Frisia]]. Ragam tutur Jerman Hulu/Saksen Hulu juga berkerabat dekat dengan subkelompok ini; terkadang bahasa-bahasa Inggris, Frisia, dan Jerman Hulu digolongkan ke dalam subkelompok [[Rumpun bahasa Ingvaeonik|Ingvaeonik (Jermanik Laut Utara)]], walaupun pengelompokan ini masih diperselisihkan keabsahannya.{{sfn|Bammesberger|1992|p=30}} Bahasa Inggris Kuno berevolusi menjadi bahasa Inggris Pertengahan, yang kemudian menurunkan bahasa Inggris Modern.{{sfn|Robinson|1992}} Beberap ragam tutur bahasa Inggris Kuno dan Pertengahan juga berkembang menjadi bahasa-bahasa Anglik lainnya, seperti [[Bahasa Scots|Bahasa Skot]] yang dituturkan di Skotlandia{{sfn|Romaine|1982|pp=56–65}}, atau ragam [[Dialek Fingal|Fingal]] serta [[Dialek Forth dan Bargy|Forth dan Bargy (Yola)]] di Irlandia.{{sfn|Barry|1982|pp=86–87}}
Sebagaimana [[bahasa Islandia]] dan [[Bahasa Faroe|Faroe]] yang berkembang di kepulauan terpisah dari daratan Eropa, perkembangan bahasa Inggris di Kepulauan Britania membuatnya terisolasi dari pengaruh bahasa-bahasa Jermanik daratan. Bahasa Inggris pun berubah secara signifikan. Bahasa Inggris tidak [[kesalingpahaman|berkesalingpahaman]] dengan bahasa Jermanik kontinental mana pun, akibat perbedaan dalam hal [[Leksikon|kosa kata]], [[sintaksis]], dan [[fonologi]]. Walaupun begitu, beberapa di antaranya, seperti bahasa Belanda dan Frisia, memiliki kedekatan yang kuat dengan bahasa Inggris, terutama pada tahap-tahap awal pembetukannya.{{sfn|Harbert|2007}}
Namun, tidak seperti bahasa Islandia dan Faroe yang terisolasi, bahasa Inggris berkembang dengan pengaruh yang didapatkan melalui serangkaian invasi pihak luar ke Kepualaun Britania, terutama oleh penutur bahasa [[Bahasa Norse Kuno|Norse Kuno]] dan [[Bahasa Norman|Perancis Norman]]. Bahasa-bahasa ini meninggalkan pengaruh yang dalam, sampai-sampai bahasa Inggris memiliki beberapa kesamaan dalam hal kosa kata dan tata bahasa dengan banyak bahasa di luar [[kladus]] linguistiknya—walaupun hal ini tidak lantas menjadikan penutur bahasa Inggris dapat saling paham dengan penutur bahasa-bahasa tersebut. Beberapa peneliti bahkan berpendapat bahwa bahasa Inggris dapat dianggap sebagai [[bahasa campuran]] atau [[bahasa kreol|kreol]]. Pandangan ini juga dikenal sebagai [[hipotesis kreol Inggris Pertengahan]]. Meski begitu, terlepas dari pengaruh bahasa-bahasa lain terhadap kosa kata dan tata bahasa Inggris Modern yang diakui secara luas, sebagian besar ahli di bidang [[kontak bahasa]] tidak menganggap bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa campuran sejati.{{sfn|Thomason|Kaufman|1988|pp=264–265}}{{sfn|Watts|2011|loc=Chapter 4}}
Bahasa Inggris digolongkan sebagai bahasa Jermanik karena ia mengalami beberapa [[perubahan bahasa|inovasi bahasa]] yang sama dengan bahasa-bahasa Jermanik lainnya seperti [[bahasa Belanda]], [[Bahasa Jerman|Jerman]], dan [[Bahasa Swedia|Swedia]].{{sfn|Durrell|2006}} Inovasi-inovasi ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa-bahasa tersebut diturunkan dari leluhur bersama, yaitu [[bahasa Proto-Jermanik]]. Termasuk di antara ciri khas bahasa Jermanik adalah: pemabgian verba-verba menjadi kelas [[Verba kuat Jermanik|verba kuat]] dan [[Verba lemah Jermanik|verba lemah]], penggunaan [[verba modal]], serta perubahan-perubahan bunyi yang berdampak pada konsonan-konsonan dari [[bahasa Proto-Indo-Europa]], seperti [[Hukum Grimm]] dan [[Hukum Verner]]. Bahasa Inggris digolongkan sebagai bagian dari cabang Anglo-Frisia, sebab bahasa Frisia dan bahasa Inggris berbagi ciri yang lebih spesifik, seperti [[palatalisasi]] konsonan velar Proto-Germanik<!--(lihat {{section link|Sejarah fonologi bahasa Inggris Kuno|Palatalisasi}})-->.{{sfn|König|van der Auwera|1994}}
== Sejarah ==
{{Main|Sejarah bahasa Inggris}}
[[Berkas:Beowulf Cotton MS Vitellius A XV f. 132r.jpg|jmpl|Kalimat pertama ''[[Beowulf]]'' (atas) ditulis dalam bahasa Inggris Kuno: "Hƿæt ƿē Gārdena ingēar dagum þēod cyninga þrym ge frunon," yang berarti, "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings."]]
Bahasa Inggris berasal dari dialek [[Bahasa Ingvaeonik|Jermanik Laut Utara]] yang dibawa ke Britania oleh [[Suku-suku Jermanik|pemukim Jermanik]] dari berbagai wilayah yang saat ini dikenal dengan Belanda, Jerman utara, dan [[Denmark]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Blench|first1=R.|last2=Spriggs|first2=Matthew|title=Archaeology and Language: Correlating Archaeological and Linguistic Hypotheses|pages=285–286|year=1999|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-11761-6|url=http://books.google.com/?id=DWMHhfXxLaIC&pg=PA286|access-date=2014-01-20|archive-date=2023-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416141846/https://books.google.com/books?id=DWMHhfXxLaIC&pg=PA286&hl=en|dead-url=no}}</ref> Menjelang periode ini, penduduk [[Britania Romawi]] berkomunikasi dengan menggunakan bahasa [[Brittonik]], [[Rumpun bahasa Keltik|Keltik]], beserta bahasa-bahasa Romawi yang dipengaruhi oleh bahasa Latin setelah pendudukan Romawi yang berlangsung selama 400 tahun.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140209095822/http://information-britain.co.uk/historydetails/article/2/ ''"The Roman epoch in Britain lasted for 367 years"''], Information Britain website</ref> Salah satu suku Jermanik yang datang ke Britania adalah [[Angles]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm |title=Anglik English language resource |publisher=Anglik.net |accessdate=21 April 2010 |archive-date=2002-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020604161756/http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> yang diperkirakan pindah seluruhnya ke Britania.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bede/history.v.i.xiv.html |title=Bede's Ecclesiastical History of England | Christian Classics Ethereal Library |publisher=Ccel.org |date=1 June 2005 |accessdate=2 January 2010 |archive-date=2019-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308011702/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bede/history.v.i.xiv.html |dead-url=no }}</ref> Nama ''England'' (dari ''Engla land''<ref>{{cite web | url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 | title=Engla land | work=[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]] (Online) | author=Bosworth, Joseph | authorlink=Joseph Bosworth | coauthors=Toller, T. Northcote | location=Prague | publisher=[[Charles University]] | access-date=2014-01-20 | archive-date=2012-12-21 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221212612/http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 | dead-url=no }}</ref> "''Land of the Angles''") and ''English'' (Old English ''Englisc''<ref>{{cite web | url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009433 | title=Englisc | work=[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]] (Online) | author=Bosworth, Joseph | authorlink=Joseph Bosworth | coauthors=Toller, T. Northcote | location=Prague | publisher=[[Charles University]] | access-date=2014-01-20 | archive-date=2012-12-21 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221212844/http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009433 | dead-url=no }}</ref>) berasal dari nama suku ini{{ndash}}meskipun suku-suku Jermanik lainnya seperti [[Saxon]], [[Jute]], dan suku-suku dari pantai [[Frisia]], [[Saxon Hulu]], [[Jutlandia|Jutland]], dan [[Swedia]] selatan juga pindah ke Britania pada periode ini.<ref>{{cite book|last=Collingwood|first=R. G.|authorlink=R. G. Collingwood|coauthors=et al|title=Roman Britain and English Settlements|publisher=Clarendon|location=Oxford, England|year=1936|pages=325 et sec|chapter=The English Settlements. The Sources for the period: Angles, Saxons, and Jutes on the Continent|isbn=0-8196-1160-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-0-X.html |title=Linguistics Research Center Texas University |publisher=Utexas.edu |date=20 February 2009 |accessdate=21 April 2010 |archive-date=2016-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220085927/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-0-X.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/invas.html |title=The Germanic Invasions of Western Europe, Calgary University |publisher=Ucalgary.ca |accessdate=21 April 2010 |archive-date=2013-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130812103150/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/invas.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref>
Pada awalnya, [[bahasa Inggris Kuno]] terdiri dari beragam kelompok dialek, yang mencerminkan beragam suku yang menghuni [[Anglia-Sachsen]],<ref>Graddol, David; Leith, Dick and Swann, Joan (1996) ''English: History, Diversity and Change'', New York: Routledge, p. 101, ISBN 0-415-13118-9.</ref> tetapi [[Dialek Saxon Barat (bahasa Inggris Kuno)|dialek Saxon Barat]] perlahan-lahan mulai mendominasi, seperti yang tertulis dalam syair ''[[Beowulf]]''.
Bahasa Inggris Kuno kemudian diubah lagi oleh dua gelombang invasi. Yang pertama adalah invasi oleh penutur bahasa [[Rumpun bahasa Jermanik Utara|Jermanik Utara]], ketika [[Halfdan Ragnarsson]] dan [[Ivar the Boneless]] mulai menaklukkan dan menguasai Kepulauan Britania bagian utara pada abad ke-8 dan ke-9 (lihat [[Danelaw]]). Invasi kedua berasal dari penutur [[bahasa Romawi]] [[Bahasa Normandia Kuno|Normandia Kuno]] pada abad ke-11 setelah [[Penaklukan Normandia di Inggris|penaklukan Normandia terhadap Inggris]]. Normandia mengembangkan bahasa Inggris menjadi [[bahasa Anglo-Norman]], dan kemudian [[Hukum Prancis|Anglo-Prancis]]{{ndash}}dan memperkenalkan penggolongan kata, khususnya di kalangan istana dan pemerintahan. Normandia juga memperluas [[leksikon]] bahasa Inggris dengan menyerap kata-kata dari bahasa Skandinavia dan Prancis. Hal ini pada akhirnya menyederhanakan tatabahasa dan mengubah bahasa Inggris menjadi sebuah "bahasa pinjaman"{{ndash}}bahasa yang secara terbuka menerima kata-kata baru dari bahasa lain.
Pergeseran linguistik dalam bahasa Inggris setelah pendudukan Normandia menghasilkan bahasa baru yang saat ini dikenal dengan bahasa Inggris Pertengahan; ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' karya [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] adalah karya terkenal yang ditulis dalam bahasa ini. Pada periode ini, bahasa Latin merupakan ''lingua franca'' di kalangan Gereja Kristen dan intelektual Eropa, dan karya-karya ditulis atau disalin dalam bahasa Latin.<ref name="Weissbort"/> Kata-kata Latin kemudian turut diserap untuk menciptakan istilah atau konsep yang tidak terdapat dalam kata bahasa Inggris asli.
Pemakaian [[bahasa Inggris Modern]], termasuk dalam karya-karya [[William Shakespeare]]<ref>[[Fausto Cercignani|Cercignani, Fausto]] (1981) ''Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation'', Oxford, Clarendon Press.</ref> dan [[Alkitab Versi Raja James]], umumnya bermula sejak tahun 1550, dan setelah [[Britania Raya]] menjadi kekuatan kolonial, bahasa Inggris berfungsi sebagai ''lingua franca'' di negara-negara jajahan [[Imperium Britania]]. Pada periode pascakolonial, beberapa negara baru yang memiliki [[ragam bahasa|beragam bahasa]] pribumi memilih untuk tetap menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai ''lingua franca'' untuk menghindari pertentangan politik yang mungkin muncul akibat menggunakan salah satu bahasa pribumi ketimbang bahasa yang lainnya. Sebagai akibat pertumbuhan Imperium Britania, bahasa Inggris digunakan secara luas di wilayah bekas jajahan Britania di Amerika Utara, [[India]], [[Afrika Selatan]], [[Australia]], [[Singapura]], dan di berbagai wilayah lainnya. Penggunaan bahasa Inggris semakin meluas setelah Amerika Serikat muncul sebagai [[negara adidaya]] pada pertengahan abad ke-20.
== Bahasa terkait ==
=== Rumpun bahasa Jermanik ===
Bahasa Inggris berasal dari rumpun bahasa [[Rumpun bahasa Anglo-Frisia|Anglo-Frisia]], subkelompok dari [[Rumpun bahasa Jermanik Barat|bahasa Jermanik Barat]]. Bahasa Jermanik Barat sendiri adalah salah satu cabang dari [[rumpun bahasa Jermanik]], sedangkan Jermanik adalah bagian dari [[rumpun bahasa Indo-Eropa]]. Bahasa Inggris modern diturunkan secara langsung dari bahasa Inggris Pertengahan; Inggris Pertengahan diturunkan dari [[bahasa Inggris Kuno]], yang juga diturunkan dari [[bahasa Proto-Jermanik]]. Seperti kebanyakan bahasa Jermanik lainnya, bahasa Inggris dicirikan dengan penggunaan [[kata kerja pengandaian]], pembagian kata kerja menjadi [[kata kerja kuat Jermanik|kata kerja kuat]] dan [[kata kerja lemah Jermanik|lemah]], dan pergeseran pelafalan dari [[bahasa Proto-Indo-Eropa]], yang dikenal dengan [[hukum Grimm]]. Bahasa kerabat terdekat dengan bahasa Inggris (selain bahasa-bahasa yang tergolong dalam [[rumpun bahasa Inggris]] dan bahasa Inggris kreol) adalah [[bahasa Frisia]], yang berasal dari pantai selatan [[Laut Utara]] di [[Belanda]], [[Jerman]], dan [[Denmark]].
Selain dengan bahasa Frisia, bahasa lainnya yang juga terkait jauh dengan bahasa Inggris adalah bahasa-bahasa Jermanik Barat non-Anglo-Frisia ([[bahasa Belanda]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Jerman Hulu]], [[bahasa Jerman|Jerman Hilir]], [[bahasa Yiddish|Yiddish]]) serta [[rumpun bahasa Jermanik Utara]] ([[bahasa Swedia|Swedish]], [[bahasa Denmark|Denmark]], [[bahasa Norwegia|Norwegia]], [[bahasa Islandia|Islandia]], dan [[bahasa Faroe|Faroe]]). Tidak ada satupun dari bahasa-bahasa tersebut yang saling berpahaman dengan bahasa Inggris, umumnya karena perbedaan [[leksis (linguistik)|leksis]], [[sintaks]], [[semantik]], dan [[fonologi]], serta isolasi yang dialami oleh bahasa Inggris di [[Kepulauan Britania]] yang terpisah dari dataran Eropa, meskipun beberapa bahasa seperti Belanda memiliki afinitas yang cukup kuat dengan bahasa Inggris, terutama pada tingkat dasar. Pengisolasian telah memungkinkan bahasa Inggris (serta bahasa Islandia dan Faroe) untuk berkembang secara mandiri dan terpisah dari pengaruh bahasa Jermanik Eropa daratan.<ref>[[#Baugh|Baugh]], p. 336.</ref>
[[Berkas:Øvre Stabu spearhead.png|jmpl|kiri|[[Ujung tombak Øvre Stabu]] dari abad ke-2 yang bertuliskan ''Raunijaz'' ("tester") dalam [[bahasa Proto-Norse]], salah satu sampel tertulis bahasa Jermanik paling awal.]]
Selain karena isolasi, perbedaan leksikal antara bahasa Inggris dengan bahasa Jermanik lainnya juga disebabkan oleh [[Linguistik sejarah|perubahan diakronis]], [[Perubahan semantik|pergeseran semantik]], dan banyaknya kata bahasa Inggris yang diserap dari bahasa lain, terutama Latin dan Perancis (meskipun penyerapan kata ini sama sekali bukanlah hal unik bagi bahasa Inggris). Misalnya: kata "''exit''" diserap dari bahasa Latin, bukannya ''uitgang'' (Belanda) dan ''Ausgang'' (Jerman), juga kata "''change''" (Perancis).
== Persebaran geografis ==
{{anchor|Persebaran geografis}}
<!--{{See also|List of territorial entities where English is an official language|List of countries by English-speaking population|English-speaking world}}-->
[[Berkas:English Proficiency Index by country as of 2014.svg|upright=1.2|jmpl|Persentase penutur bahasa Inggris berdasarkan negara dan wilayah dependen pada tahun 2014.
{{legend|#225500|80–100%}}
{{legend|#44aa00|60–80%}}
{{legend|#66ff00|40–60%}}
{{legend|#99ff55|20–40%}}
{{legend|#ccffaa|0.1–20%}}
{{legend|#c0c0c0|Tidak ada data}}]]
[[Berkas:Map of English native speakers.png|upright=1.2|jmpl|Persentase pengguna bahasa Inggris sebagai [[bahasa ibu]]]]
Pada tahun 2016, sekitar 400 juta orang menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai [[bahasa ibu|bahasa pertama]] mereka, sementara 1.1 milyar orang menuturkannya sebagai bahasa kedua.<ref>{{cite web|title=Which countries are best at English as a second language?|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/which-countries-are-best-at-english-as-a-second-language-4d24c8c8-6cf6-4067-a753-4c82b4bc865b|website=World Economic Forum|access-date=29 November 2016|archive-date=2016-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125144549/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/which-countries-are-best-at-english-as-a-second-language-4d24c8c8-6cf6-4067-a753-4c82b4bc865b/|dead-url=no}}</ref> English is the [[List of languages by total number of speakers|largest language by number of speakers]]. Komunitas penutur bahasa Inggris dapat ditemui di tiap benua.{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|p=106}}
Negara-negara yang menjadi tempat bahasa Inggris dituturkan dapat digolongkan menjadi tiga kategori berbeda, tergantung peran yang diambil oleh bahasa Inggris di negara tersebut. Negara "lingkar dalam" (''inner circle''){{sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|p=2}} yang memiliki banyak [[penutur jati]] bahasa Inggris berbagi ragam tulisan standar yang bersifat internasional dan secara kolektif mempengaruhi norma bertutur bahasa Inggris di seluruh dunia. Bahasa Inggris bukan hanya milik satu negara saja, dan bukan pula milik pemukim keturunan Inggris semata. Bahasa Inggris digunakan sebagai bahasa resmi di beberapa negara yang memiliki sedikit keturunan penutur jati bahasa Inggris. Bahasa ini juga telah menjadi bahasa terpenting dalam komunikasi internasional dengan bertindak sebagai [[lingua franca]] bagi orang-orang yang tidak berbagi bahasa ibu yang sama di seluruh dunia.
=== Tiga lingkar negara-negara penutur bahasa Inggris ===
Ahli bahasa berkebangsaan India, [[Braj Kachru]], membedakan antara negara-negara penutur bahasa Inggris dengan [[Tiga Lingkar Bahasa Inggris|model tiga lingkar]].{{sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|p=2}} Dalam model ini,
* negara-negara di "lingkar dalam" memiliki komunitas penutur jati bahasa Inggris yang besar;
* negara-negara di "lingkar luar" memilki komunitas penutur jati bahasa Inggris yang kecil, tetapi penggunaan bahasa Inggris yang luas sebagai bahasa kedua di bidang pendidikan, penyiaran, atau keperluan resmi setempat; dan
* negara-negara di "lingkar pengembangan", yang memiliki banyak pembelajar bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa asing.
Kachru mendasarkan modelnya pada metode penyebaran bahasa Inggris di negara yang berbeda-beda, bagaimana cara penutur mempelajarinya, dan lingkup penggunaan bahasa Inggris di negara tersebut. Cakupan ketiga lingkar ini dapat berubah seiring waktu.{{sfn|Kachru|2006|p=196}}
[[Berkas:Kachru's three circles of English.svg|jmpl|alt=Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English|''Tiga Lingkar Bahasa Inggris'' (''Three Circles of English'') menurut Braj Kachru]]
<!--Countries with large communities of native speakers of English (the inner circle) include Britain, the United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand, where the majority speaks English, and South Africa, where a significant minority speaks English. The countries with the most native English speakers are, in descending order, the [[United States]] (at least 231 million),{{sfn|Ryan|2013|loc=Table 1}} the [[United Kingdom]] (60 million),{{sfn|Office for National Statistics|2013|loc=Key Points}}{{sfn|National Records of Scotland|2013}}{{sfn|Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency|2012|loc=Table KS207NI: Main Language}} Canada (19 million),{{sfn|Statistics Canada|2014}} [[Australia]] (at least 17 million),{{sfn|Australian Bureau of Statistics|2013}} South Africa (4.8 million),{{sfn|Statistics South Africa|2012|loc=Table 2.5 Population by first language spoken and province (number)}} [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] (4.2 million), and New Zealand (3.7 million).{{sfn|Statistics New Zealand|2014}} In these countries, children of native speakers learn English from their parents, and local people who speak other languages and new immigrants learn English to communicate in their neighbourhoods and workplaces.{{sfn|Bao|2006|p=377}} The inner-circle countries provide the base from which English spreads to other countries in the world.{{sfn|Kachru|2006|p=196}}
Estimates of the numbers of [[second language]] and foreign-language English speakers vary greatly from 470 million to more than 1 billion, depending on how proficiency is defined.{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|pp=108–109}} Linguist [[David Crystal]] estimates that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1.{{sfn|Crystal|2003a|p=69}} In Kachru's three-circles model, the "outer circle" countries are countries such as the [[Philippines]],{{sfn|Rubino|2006}} [[Jamaica]],{{sfn|Patrick|2006a}} India, Pakistan,{{sfn|Lim|Ansaldo|2006}} [[Malaysia]] and [[Nigeria]]{{sfn|Connell|2006}}{{sfn|Schneider|2007}} with a much smaller proportion of native speakers of English but much use of English as a second language for education, government, or domestic business, and its routine use for school instruction and official interactions with the government.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=5}}
Those countries have millions of native speakers of [[dialect continuum|dialect continua]] ranging from an [[English-based creole languages|English-based creole]] to a more standard version of English. They have many more speakers of English who acquire English as they grow up through day-to-day use and listening to broadcasting, especially if they attend schools where English is the medium of instruction. Varieties of English learned by non-native speakers born to English-speaking parents may be influenced, especially in their grammar, by the other languages spoken by those learners.{{sfn|Bao|2006|p=377}} Most of those varieties of English include words little used by native speakers of English in the inner-circle countries,{{sfn|Bao|2006|p=377}} and they may show grammatical and phonological differences from inner-circle varieties as well. The standard English of the inner-circle countries is often taken as a norm for use of English in the outer-circle countries.{{sfn|Bao|2006|p=377}}
In the three-circles model, countries such as Poland, China, Brazil, Germany, Japan, Indonesia, Egypt, and other countries where English is taught as a foreign language, make up the "expanding circle".{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=4}} The distinctions between English as a first language, as a second language, and as a foreign language are often debatable and may change in particular countries over time.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=5}} For example, in the [[Netherlands]] and some other countries of Europe, knowledge of English as a second language is nearly universal, with over 80 percent of the population able to use it,{{sfn|European Commission|2012}} and thus English is routinely used to communicate with foreigners and often in higher education. In these countries, although English is not used for government business, its widespread use puts them at the boundary between the "outer circle" and "expanding circle". English is unusual among world languages in how many of its users are not native speakers but speakers of English as a second or foreign language.{{sfn|Kachru|2006|p=197}}
Many users of English in the expanding circle use it to communicate with other people from the expanding circle, so that interaction with native speakers of English plays no part in their decision to use the language.{{sfn|Kachru|2006|p=198}} Non-native varieties of English are widely used for international communication, and speakers of one such variety often encounter features of other varieties.{{sfn|Bao|2006}} Very often today a conversation in English anywhere in the world may include no native speakers of English at all, even while including speakers from several different countries. This is particularly true of the shared vocabulary of the scientifical and mathematical fields of life.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=7}}
-->
== Fonologi ==
{{utama|Fonologi bahasa Inggris}}
[[Fonetik]] dan [[fonologi]] bahasa Inggris berbeda dari satu dialek ke dialek yang lain, meskipun hal ini biasanya tidak mengganggu komunikasi antar penutur berbeda dialek. Keragaman fonologi menjadikan jumlah [[fonem]] (bunyi yang dapat mengubah arti) yang berbeda-beda, sementara keragaman fonetik memberikan perbedaan dalam hal realisasi pengucapan fonem-fonem tersebut. {{sfn|Wolfram|2006|pp=334–335}} Ringkasan berikut utamanya menjabarkan dua [[bahasa baku|sistem pengucapan baku]], yaitu Pengucapan Lazim (''[[Received Pronunciation]]'', RP) yang dipakai di [[Britania Raya]], serta logat Amerika Umum (''[[General American]]'', GA) yang dipakai di [[Amerika Serikat]].<!--(See {{slink||Dialects, accents, and varieties}}, below.)-->
Sistem penulisan fonetik yang digunakan di bawah ini adalah [[Alfabet Fonetis Internasional]] (''International Phonetic Alphabet'' atau IPA).{{sfn|Carr|Honeybone|2007}}{{sfn|Bermúdez-Otero|McMahon|2006}}{{sfn|MacMahon|2006}}
=== Konsonan ===
{{utama|Fonologi bahasa Inggris#Konsonan}}
Kebanyakan dialek bahasa Inggris menggunakan 24{{nbsp}}fonem konsonan yang sama. Daftar konsonan yang diberikan di bawah ini berlaku untuk dialek [[bahasa Inggris California|Inggris California]]{{sfn|International Phonetic Association|1999|pages=41–42}} dan RP.{{sfn|König|1994|page=534}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
|+ Fonem konsonan
!
! colspan="2" | [[Konsonan bibir|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[
! colspan="2" | [[
! colspan="2" | [[Konsonan alveolar belakang|Alv. belakang]]
! colspan="2" | [[
! colspan="2" | [[
! colspan="2" | [[Konsonan glotal|Glotal]]
|-
! [[
| style="
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|n}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|ŋ}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[
| style="
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|t}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|d}}
| style="
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|k}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|ɡ}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[Konsonan afrikat|Afrikat]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|tʃ}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|dʒ}}
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[Konsonan frikatif|Frikatif]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|f}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|v}}
| style="
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|s}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|z}}
| style="
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|h}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
|-
! [[Aproksiman]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|l}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|ɹ}}*
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|j}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|w}}
| colspan="2" |
|}
<small><nowiki>*</nowiki> Lazim ditranskripsikan sebagai {{IPA|/r/}}</small>
Untuk [[konsonan hambat]] (hentian, afrikat, dan frikatif) yang berpasangan pada tabel di atas, seperti {{IPA|/p b/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ dʒ/}}, dan {{IPA|/s z/}}, fonem yang pertama bersifat [[fortis dan lenis|fortis]] (kuat), sementara yang kedua bersifat lenis (lemah). Konsonan hambat fortis seperti {{IPA|/p tʃ s/}} diucapkan dengan otot yang lebih tegang dan hembusan napas yang lebih kuat daripada konsonan lenis seperti {{IPA|/b dʒ z/}}, dan selalu bersifat [[Suara (fonetik)|nirsuara]] (diucapkan tanpa menggetarkan pita suara). Pada konsonan lenis di awal dan akhir ujaran, [[Suara (fonetik)|getaran pita suara]] dilakukan secara parsial, sementara pada konsonan lenis di antara vokal, getaran pita suara dilakukan secara penuh. Pada kebanyakan dialek, hentian fortis seperti {{IPA|/p/}} memiliki ciri artikulasi atau akustik tambahan, yaitu: 1) diucapkan dengan [[Konsonan aspirasi|aspirasi]] {{IPA|[pʰ]}} jika konsonan tersebut berdiri sendiri di awal suku kata bertekanan; 2) sering kali diucapkan tanpa aspirasi pada kasus lainnya, dan 3) sering kali diucapkan [[Konsonan hentian tak letup|tanpa letupan]] {{IPA|[p̚]}} atau dengan pra-glotalisasi {{IPA|[ʔp]}} di akhir suku kata. Pada kata yang terdiri dari satu suku kata, bunyi vokal sebelum hentian fortis dipendekkan, sehingga bunyi vokal pada kata ''nip'' 'cubit' terdengar lebih pendek (secara fonetis, bukan fonemis) daripada vokal dalam kata ''nib'' {{IPA|[nɪˑb̥]}} 'ujung yang runcing'<!--([[#Vowels|see below]])-->.{{sfn|Collins|Mees|2003|pages=47–53}}
* hentian lenis: ''bin'' {{IPA|[b̥ɪˑn]}} 'wadah', ''about'' {{IPA|[əˈbaʊt]}} 'tentang', ''nib'' {{IPA|[nɪˑb̥]}} 'ujung yang runcing'
* hentian fortis: ''pin'' {{IPA|[pʰɪn]}} 'pin'; ''spin'' {{IPA|[spɪn]}} 'putar'; ''happy'' {{IPA|[ˈhæpi]}} 'bahagia'; ''nip'' {{IPA|[nɪp̚]}} or {{IPA|[nɪʔp]}} 'cubit'
Pada dialek RP, aproksiman lateral {{IPA|/l/}} memiliki dua [[alofon]] (variasi pengucapan) berbeda, yaitu {{IPA|[l]}} yang pengucapannya jelas atau polos, seperti pada kata ''light'' 'cahaya', serta {{IPA|[ɫ]}} yang diucapkan dengan [[velarisasi]] (lidah belakang dinaikkan sampai mendekati velum) sehingga terkesan "gelap" (''dark l''), seperti pada kata ''full'' 'penuh'.{{Sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=13}} Dialek GA menggunakan ''l'' gelap pada kebanyakan kasus.{{Sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=41}}
* ''l'' jelas: pengucapan RP untuk ''light'' {{IPA|[laɪt]}} 'cahaya'
* ''l'' gelap: pengucapan RP dan GA untuk ''full'' {{IPA|[fʊɫ]}} 'penuh', pengucapan GA untuk ''light'' {{IPA|[ɫaɪt]}} 'cahaya'
Semua konsonan [[sonoran]] (baik likuida {{IPA|/l, r/}} maupun sengau {{IPA|/m, n, ŋ/}}) bersifat nirsuara (diucapkan tanpa getaran pita suara) jika didahului oleh bunyi hambat nirsuara, dan bersifat silabis (diucapkan sebagai suku kata tersendiri) jika didahului oleh konsonan lain di akhir kata.{{sfn|Brinton|Brinton|2010|pages=56–59}}
* sonoran nirsuara: ''clay'' {{IPA|[kl̥eɪ̯]}} 'lempung'; ''snow'' RP {{IPA|[sn̥əʊ̯]}}, GA {{IPA|[sn̥oʊ̯]}} 'salju'
* sonoran silabis: ''paddle'' {{IPA|[ˈpad.l̩]}} 'dayung, kayuh', ''button'' {{IPA|[ˈbʌt.n̩]}} 'kancing, tombol'
=== Vokal ===
{{Main|Fonologi bahasa Inggris#Vokal}}
Pengucapan vokal-vokal dalam bahasa Inggris amat bervariasi dari satu dialek ke dialek lainnya, dan merupakan salah satu aspek yang paling mudah dideteksi untuk mengetahui logat yang digunakan oleh penuturnya. Tabel di bawah ini mendaftar [[fonem|fonem-fonem]] vokal dalam dialek ''Received Pronunciation'' (RP) dan ''General American'' (GA), dengan contoh-contoh kata yang mengandung vokal-vokal tersebut, berdasarkan [[set kosakata]] yang disusun oleh para linguis. Vokal-vokal di sini direpresentasikan dengan simbol IPA; daftar vokal RP mengikut daftar vokal standar yang biasa ditemukan dalam kamus-kamus dan publikasi lain yang berasal dari Inggris.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wells|first=John C.|date=8 February 2001|url=https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-english-uni.htm|title=IPA transcription systems for English|publisher=University College London|access-date=2021-09-16|archive-date=2018-09-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919182345/https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-english-uni.htm|dead-url=no}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; float: left; margin-right: 1em;"
|+ Monoftong
![[Received Pronunciation|RP]] !! [[General American|GA]] !! Kata !! Arti
|-
| {{IPAlink|iː}} || {{IPAlink|i}} || n'''ee'''d || perlu, keperluan
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPAlink|ɪ}} || b'''i'''d || bertaruh
|-
| {{IPAlink|e̞|e}} || {{IPAlink|ɛ}} || b'''e'''d || kasur
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPAlink|æ}}<!-- Pronunciation differs between RP and GA, but until we use separate symbols, these cells will be merged. --> || b'''a'''ck || belakang
|-
| {{IPAlink|ɑː}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPAlink|ɑ}} || br'''a''' || bra
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPAlink|ɒ}} || b'''o'''x || kotak
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPAlink|ɔ}}, {{IPAlink|ɑ}} || cl'''o'''th || kain
|-
| {{IPAlink|o|ɔː}} || p'''aw''' || cakar, mengais
|-
| {{IPAlink|uː}} || {{IPAlink|u}} || f'''oo'''d || makanan
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPAlink|ʊ}}<!-- Pronunciation differs between RP and GA, with GA probably closer to {{IPA|[ɵ]}}, but until we use separate symbols, these cells will be merged. --> || g'''oo'''d || baik
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPAlink|ɐ|ʌ}} || b'''u'''t || tetapi
|-
| {{IPAlink|ə|ɜː}} || {{IPAlink|ɚ|ɜɹ}} || b'''ir'''d || burung
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPAlink|ə}} || comm'''a''' || koma
|}
<div style="float: left;">
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Diftong menutup
![[Received Pronunciation|RP]] !! [[General American|GA]] !! Kata !! Arti
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|eɪ}} || b'''ay''' || teluk
|-
| {{IPA|əʊ}} || {{IPA|oʊ}} || r'''oa'''d || jalan
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|aɪ}} || cr'''y''' || menangis, berteriak
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|aʊ}} || c'''ow''' || sapi
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || b'''oy''' || anak laki-laki
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Diftong menengah
![[Received Pronunciation|RP]] !! [[General American|GA]] !! Kata !! Arti
|-
| {{IPA|ɪə}} || {{IPA|ɪɹ}} || p'''eer''' || sebaya
|-
| {{IPAlink|ɛ|eə}} || {{IPA|ɛɹ}} || p'''air''' || pasangan
|-
| {{IPA|ʊə}} || {{IPA|ʊɹ}} || p'''oor''' || miskin
|}
</div>
{{clear}}
Dalam dialek RP, panjang vokal bersifat fonemis; [[panjang vokal|vokal panjang]] ditandai dengan simbol titik dua serupa ujung panah {{IPA|[ː]}} dalam tabel di atas. Contohnya adalah vokal dalam kata ''need'' {{IPA|[niːd]}} yang berlawanan dengan vokal dalam kata ''bid'' {{IPA|[bɪd]}}. Sementara dalam dialek GA, panjang vokal tidak bersifat fonemis atau mengubah makna.
Bunyi vokal dalam dialek RP maupun GA [[pemotongan (fonetik)|dipendekkan]] jika ditutup oleh konsonan fortis (seperti {{IPA|/t tʃ f/}}) pada suku kata yang sama, tetapi tidak dipendekkan sebelum konsonan lenis seperti {{IPA|/d dʒ v/}} atau jika berada pada suku kata terbuka. Karena itu, bunyi vokal dalam kata ''rich'' {{IPA|[rɪtʃ]}}, ''neat'' {{IPA|[nit]}}, dan ''safe'' {{IPA|[seɪ̯f]}} terkesan lebih pendek daripada bunyi vokal dalam kata ''ridge'' {{IPA|[rɪˑdʒ]}}, ''need'' {{IPA|[niˑd]}}, dan ''save'' {{IPA|[seˑɪ̯v]}}, begitu pula dengan bunyi vokal dalam kata ''light'' {{IPA|[laɪ̯t]}} yang lebih pendek daripada bunyi vokal dalam kata ''lie'' {{IPA|[laˑɪ̯]}}. Karena konsonan lenis sering kali bersifat nirsuara pada akhir suku kata, panjang sebuah bunyi vokal merupakan penanda yang penting untuk mengetahui apakah konsonan yang mengikutinya bersifat lenis atau fortis.{{sfn|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=46–50}}
Vokal {{IPA|/ə/}} hanya muncul pada suku kata tanpa penekanan dan diucapkan dengan mulut yang lebih terbuka pada posisi akhir bentuk dasar/pangkal kata (''stem'').{{sfn|Cruttenden|2014|p=138}}{{sfn|Flemming|Johnson|2007}} Beberapa dialek tidak membedakan antara bunyi {{IPA|/ɪ/}} dan {{IPA|/ə/}} dalam posisi tanpa penekanan, sehingga kata ''rabbit'' 'kelinci' dan ''abbot'' 'abbas, kepala biara' berbagi rima yang serupa, sementara nama ''Lenin'' dan ''Lennon'' memiliki pengucapan yang sama ([[homofon]]). Ciri dialektal ini disebut sebagai [[penggabungan vokal lemah]] (''weak vowel merger'').{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=167}} Bunyi {{IPA|/ɜr/}} dan {{IPA|/ər/}} dalam dialek GA direalisasikan sebagai [[vokal dengan warna r|vokal dengan corak bunyi ''r'']] {{IPA|[ɚ]}}. Contohnya adalah kata ''further'' 'lebih jauh', yang secara fonemis direpresentasikan sebagai {{IPA|/ˈfɜrðər/}} tapi diucapkan sebagai {{IPA|[ˈfɚðɚ]}} dalam GA. Kata yang sama dalam RP direpresentasikan secara fonemis sebagai {{IPA|/ˈfɜːðə/}} dan direalisasikan sebagai {{IPA|[ˈfəːðə]}}.{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=121}}
=== Tekanan, ritme dan intonasi ===
<!--{{See also|Stress and vowel reduction in English|Intonation in English}}-->
[[Tekanan (linguistik)|Tekanan]] memiliki peran yang besar dalam bahasa Inggris. Dalam kata-kata bahasa Inggris, ada suku kata yang ditekan dan ada yang tidak. Tekanan yang dimaksud di sini mencakup perbedaan dalam hal durasi, intensitas, dan kualitas vokal, dan terkadang juga perubahan pada nada (''pitch''). Suku kata yang ditekan diucapkan dengan lebih panjang dan lebih nyaring daripada suku kata yang tidak ditekan. Bunyi vokal dalam suku kata tanpa tekanan sering kali mengalami [[reduksi vokal|reduksi]] sementara vokal dalam suku kata dengan tekanan tidak direduksi.{{sfn|International Phonetic Association|1999|page=42}} Beberapa kata—terutama kata tugas, tetapi juga kata kerja modal seperti ''can''—memiliki [[bentuk lemah dan kuat dalam bahasa Inggris|bentuk lemah dan kuat]] tergantung dari apakah kata tersebut muncul di posisi yang ditekan atau tidak dalam sebuah kalimat.
Tekanan dalam bahasa Inggris bersifat fonemis, dan terdapat beberapa pasang kata yang dibedakan hanya berdasarkan posisi tekanannya. Contohnya, kata ''contract'' ditekan pada suku kata pertama ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɒ|n|t|r|æ|k|t}} {{respell|KON|trakt}}) ketika digunakan sebagai nomina ('kontrak'), tetapi ditekan pada suku kata terakhir ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|n|ˈ|t|r|æ|k|t}} {{respell|kən|TRAKT|'}}) ketika digunakan sebagai verba yang dapat mencakup banyak makna (termasuk misalnya ''contract'' yang berarti 'menyusut').{{sfn|Oxford Learner's Dictionary|2015|loc=Entry "contract"}}{{sfn|Merriam Webster|2015|loc=Entry "contract"}}{{sfn|Macquarie Dictionary|2015|loc=Entry "contract"}} Di sini, tekanan berkaitan dengan reduksi vokal: pada ''contract'' yang bermakna nomina, vokal pada suku kata pertama yang ditekan diucapkan tanpa reduksi sebagai {{IPA|/ɒ/}}, tetapi pada ''contract'' yang bermakna verba, suku kata pertama tidak ditekan dan vokalnya direduksi menjadi {{IPA|/ə/}}. Tekanan juga digunakan untuk membedakan antara kata dan frasa, sehingga gabungan kata serangkai hanya diberi tekanan pada salah satu bagian, tetapi frasa dengan komponen yang sama ditekan dua kali: contohnya ''a burnout'' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɜːr|n|aʊ|t}}) 'kelelahan mental' versus ''to burn out'' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɜːr|n|_|ˈ|aʊ|t}}) 'membakar habis', serta ''a hotdog'' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɒ|t|d|ɒ|g}}) 'sepotong [[hotdog]]' versus ''a hot dog'' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɒ|t|_|ˈ|d|ɒ|g}}) 'seekor anjing yang panas'.{{sfn|Brinton|Brinton|2010|page=66}}
Bahasa Inggris umumnya dianggap sebagai bahasa yang ritmenya diatur oleh suku kata bertekanan (''stress-timed rhythm''); selisih waktu pengucapan antara suku kata bertekanan dalam bahasa Inggris cenderung konstan.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sentence stress |url=https://esol.britishcouncil.org/content/teachers/staff-room/teaching-articles/sentence-stress |website=ESOL Nexus |publisher=British Council |access-date=24 November 2019 |archive-date=2019-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203092723/https://esol.britishcouncil.org/content/teachers/staff-room/teaching-articles/sentence-stress |dead-url=no }}</ref> Suku kata dengan tekanan diucapkan lebih panjang, sementara suku kata tanpa tekanan (yang berada di antara suku kata bertekanan) dipendekkan. Pemendekan bunyi vokal dalam suku kata tanpa tekanan menyebabkan perubahan dalam [[kualitas vokal]]; fenomena ini disebut juga dengan [[reduksi vokal]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunden |first1=Anya |title=Duration, vowel quality, and the rhythmic pattern of English |journal=Laboratory Phonology |volume=8 |pages=27 |doi=10.5334/labphon.37 |year=2017 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Ragam regional ===
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+ class="nowrap" | Ragam-ragam bahasa Inggris Baku dan ciri khasnya{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2002|pp=4–6}}
! Ciri<br/>fonologi !! [[Bahasa Inggris Amerika|Amerika<br/>Serikat]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris Kanada|Kanada]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris Irlandia|Republik<br/>Irlandia]]!! [[Bahasa Inggris Ulster|Irlandia<br/>Utara]]!! [[Bahasa Inggris Skotlandia|Skotlandia]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris di Inggris|Inggris]]!! [[Bahasa Inggris Wales|Wales]]!! [[Bahasa Inggris Afrika Selatan|Afrika<br/>Selatan]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris Australia|Australia]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris Selandia Baru|Selandia<br/>Baru]]
|-
! [[merger father-bother|merger vokal ''father''–''bother'']]
| ya || ya || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"|
|-
! {{IPAc-en|ɒ}} diucapkan secara [[kebulatan vokal|takbulat]]
| ya || ya || ya || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"|
|-
! {{IPAc-en|ɜr}} diucapkan sebagai {{IPA|[ɚ]}}
| ya || ya || ya || ya || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"|
|-
! [[merger cot-caught|merger vokal ''cot''–''caught'']]
| mungkin || ya || mungkin || ya || ya || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"|
|-
! [[merger full–fool|merger vokal ''fool''–''full'']]
| style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || ya || ya || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"|
|-
! {{IPAc-en|t|,_|d}} diucapkan dengan [[konsonan sentuhan|kepakan lidah]] (''flap'')
| ya || ya || mungkin || sering || jarang || jarang || jarang || jarang || ya || sering
|-
! [[pemisahan trap-bath|pemisahan vokal ''trap''–''bath'']]
| style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || mungkin || mungkin || style="background:lightgrey;"| || sering || ya || ya || sering || ya
|-
! tidak bersifat [[rhotisitas|rhotis]] ({{IPAc-en|r}} dibuang setelah vokal)
| style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || ya || ya || ya || ya || ya
|-
! {{IPA|/æ, ɛ/}} ditukar dengan vokal tertutup
| style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || ya || ya || ya
|-
! {{IPAc-en|l}} dapat selalu diucapkan sebagai {{IPA|[ɫ]}}
| ya || ya || style="background:lightgrey;"| || ya || ya || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || ya || ya
|-
! {{IPA|/ɑːr/}} diucapkan dengan [[pemajuan (fonetik)|posisi yang lebih maju]]
| style="background:lightgrey;"| || mungkin || mungkin || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || ya || ya
|}
{|class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Vokal terbuka dalam beberapa dialek
! Kosakata !! RP || GA !! Kanada !! Perubahan bunyi
|-
! {{sc2|THOUGHT}}
| {{IPA|/ɔː/}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɔ/}} atau {{IPA|/ɑ/}} || rowspan="4" | {{IPA|/ɑ/}} || [[Cot–caught|merger vokal ''cot''–''caught'']]
|-
! {{sc2|CLOTH}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɒ/}} || [[Lot–cloth split|pemisahan vokal ''lot''–''cloth'']]
|-
! {{sc2|LOT}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɑ/}} || rowspan="2" | [[Father–bother|merger vokal ''father''–''bother'']]
|-
! {{sc2|PALM}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɑː/}}
|-
! {{sc2|BATH}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/æ/}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/æ/}} || rowspan="2" | [[Trap–bath split|pemisahan vokal ''trap''–''bath'']]
|-
! {{sc2|TRAP}}
| {{IPA|/æ/}}
|}
Perbedaan paling besar dalam ragam-ragam bahasa Inggris adalah pada pengucapan bunyi vokalnya. Terdapat dua ragam utama yang digunakan sebagai ragam baku dalam pengajaran bahasa Inggris di negara-negara yang penduduknya mayoritas bukan penutur bahasa tersebut, yaitu bahasa Inggris Britania (''British English'', BrE) dan bahasa Inggris Amerika (''American English'', AmE). Negara-negara seperti [[Bahasa Inggris Kanada|Kanada]], [[Bahasa Inggris Australia|Australia]], [[Bahasa Inggris Irlandia|Irlandia]], [[Bahasa Inggris Selandia Baru|Selandia Baru]] dan [[Bahasa Inggris Afrika Selatan|Afrika Selatan]] memiliki ragam baku mereka sendiri yang lebih jarang dipakai dalam pengajaran bahasa Inggris secara internasional. Beberapa perbedaan antara ragam-ragam ini dapat dilihat pada tabel "Ragam-ragam bahasa Inggris Baku dan ciri khasnya".{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2002|pp=4–6}}
Sepanjang sejarahnya, bahasa Inggris telah melalui berbagai [[Sejarah fonologi bahasa Inggris|perubahan bunyi]]. Sebagian perubahan bunyi ini berlaku pada seluruh ragam bahasa Inggris, sementara sebagian yang lain hanya berlaku pada beberapa ragam saja. Ragam-ragam baku bahasa Inggris pada umumnya mengalami [[Pergeseran Vokal Besar]] (''Great Vowel Shift'') yang memengaruhi pengucapan vokal-vokal panjang, walaupun terdapat perbedaan dalam bunyi vokal yang dihasilkan oleh pergeseran ini pada sebagian kecil dialek. Di Amerika Utara, beberapa pergeseran berantai (pergeseran bunyi yang memicu pergeseran lainnya) seperti [[Pergeseran Vokal Kota-Kota Utara]] (''Northern Cities Vowel Shift'') dan [[Pergeseran Kanada]] (''Canadian Shift'') menghasilkan bentang vokal yang amat khas pada sebagian logat daerah.{{sfnm|Lass|1992|1pp=90,118,610|Lass|2000|2pp=80,656}}
Beberapa dialek memiliki bunyi konsonan fonemis dan fonetis yang lebih banyak atau lebih sedikit dari jumlah bunyi dalam ragam-ragam baku. Sebagian ragam konservatif seperti bahasa Inggris Skotlandia menggunakan bunyi [[suara (fonetik)|nirsuara]] {{IPAblink|ʍ}} dalam kata ''whine'' 'mengeluh', kontras dengan bunyi {{IPA|[w]}} dalam kata ''wine'' '(minuman) anggur' yang menggunakan getaran pita suara. Sementara itu, kebanyakan dialek lainnya menggunakan {{IPA|[w]}} dalam kedua kondisi; ciri ini disebut juga sebagai [[Merger konsonan wine–whine merger|merger konsonan ''wine''–''whine'']]. Bunyi frikatif velar nirsuara {{IPA|/x/}} dapat ditemukan dalam bahasa Inggris Skotlandia, yang membedakan antara pengucapan kata ''loch'' {{IPA|/lɔx/}} 'danau' dengan kata ''lock'' {{IPA|/lɔk/}} 'mengunci, gembok'. Logat seperti [[Cockney]] yang mengalami fenomena "penghapusan ''h''" (''h-dropping'') tidak memiliki bunyi frikatif glotal {{IPA|/h/}}, dan logat yang mengalami "penghentian ''th''" (''th-stopping'') dan "pengedepanan ''th''" (''th-fronting'') seperti [[bahasa Inggris Afrika-Amerika|dialek Afrika-Amerika]] dan [[Inggris Estuari]] tidak memiliki frikatif dental {{IPA|/θ, ð/}}, tetapi menggantinya dengan hentian dental/alveolar {{IPA|/t, d/}} atau frikatif labiodental {{IPA|/f, v/}}.{{sfn|Roach|2009|p=53}}{{sfn|Giegerich|1992|page=36}} Perubahan lain yang memengaruhi fonologi ragam-ragam tempatan di antaranya adalah penghapusan ''yod'' (penghapusan bunyi {{IPA|/j/}} dalam beberapa kondisi), peleburan ''yod'' (peleburan bunyi {{IPA|/j/}} yang membentuk kluster dengan konsonan lain menjadi bunyi sibilan), dan pemupusan kluster konsonan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wells |first1=John |title=Accents of English |url=https://archive.org/details/accentsofenglish0000well |date=1982 |isbn=0-521-28540-2}}</ref>
Dialek GA dan RP berbeda dalam hal pengucapan bunyi historis {{IPA|/r/}} yang menutup vokal di akhir suku kata. Dialek GA merupakan [[Logat rhotis dan non-rhotis|ragam rhotis]], yaitu ragam bahasa Inggris yang merealisasikan bunyi {{IPA|/r/}} di akhir suku kata, sementara dialek RP yang bersifat non-rhotis menghilangkan bunyi {{IPA|/r/}} di posisi tersebut. Dialek-dialek bahasa Inggris dapat digolongkan sebagai ragam rhotis dan non-rhotis tergantung apakah dialek tersebut menghilangkan bunyi {{IPA|/r/}} seperti dialek RP atau melestarikan bunyi tersebut seperti dialek GA.{{sfn|Lass|2000|p=114}}
Terdapat perbedaan dialektal yang kompleks dalam kosakata yang memiliki bunyi vokal terbuka depan dan vokal terbuka belakang {{IPA|/æ ɑː ɒ ɔː/}}. Keempat bunyi vokal ini hanya dibedakan dalam dialek RP, Australia, Selandia Baru, dan Afrika Selatan. Dalam dialek GA, vokal-vokal ini melebur menjadi {{IPA|/æ ɑ ɔ/}},{{sfn|Wells|1982|pages=xviii–xix}} sementara dalam dialek Kanada, kesemuanya melebur menjadi dua bunyi saja: {{IPA|/æ ɑ/}}.{{sfn|Wells|1982|page=493}} Selain itu, kosakata yang mengandung vokal-vokal tersebut dapat berbeda-beda tergantung dialeknya. Tabel "Vokal terbuka dalam beberapa dialek" menunjukkan keragaman ini dalam beberapa kosakata yang mengandung bunyi-bunyi vokal tersebut.
== Sistem penulisan ==
{{utama|
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+
|-
! Huruf besar !! Huruf kecil !! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !! Huruf besar !! Huruf kecil !! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
Baris 168 ⟶ 456:
== Tata bahasa ==
[[Tata bahasa]] Inggris memiliki variasi dalam struktur dan penggunaannya, itu tergantung tradisi yang digunakan oleh suatu negara yang dipengaruhi oleh bahasa asli dari negara tersebut. Secara umum, tata bahasa yang dipedomani adalah tata bahasa Inggris Amerika (''American English'') dan Inggris Britania Raya ''(British English)''.
=== Sistem kala ===
Bahasa Inggris umumnya dikenal memiliki empat bentuk [[Kala (linguistik)|kala]] yakni:
* [[Kala lampau]] (''Past tense'')
* [[Kala kini]] (''Present tense'')
* [[Kala mendatang]] (''Future tense'')
* Kala mendatang di masa lampau (''Past future tense'')
Namun, kala yang sejati dalam bahasa Inggris hanya ''kala lampau'' dan ''kala kini'' (taklampau) karena dua kala lainnya hanya berupa kata dasar ditambah verba bantu.
Untuk menunjukkan perbedaan aspek gramatikal lebih lanjut, masing-masing kala memiliki "empat bagian" yakni:
* ''Simple'' (umumnya menunjukkan aspek habitual, frekuentatif, atau momentan tergantung adverbia yang ada)
* ''Continuous/Progressive'' (aspek kontinuatif atau progresif)
* ''
* ''Perfect Continuous/Progressive'' (aspek imperfektif)
==== Rumus sistem kala ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! !! Past !! Present !! Future !! Past Future
|-
| Simple || S
|-
| Continuous || S + Was/Were + KK-ing + O || S + Am/Are/Is + KK-ing + O || S + Will + Be + KK-ing + O || S + Would + Be + KK-ing + O
|-
| Perfect || S + Had + KK3 + O || S + Have/Has + KK3 + O || S + Will + Have
|-
| Perfect Continuous || S + Had + Been + KK-ing + O || S + Have/Has + Been + KK-ing + O || S + Will + Have
|}
* Ket:
*: Subjek adalah pelaku dan objek adalah penderita.
*: untuk KK1, kata ganti orang ketiga harus ditambah ''s/es''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! !! Past !! Present !! Future !! Past Future
|-
| Simple || S +
|-
| Continuous || S + Was/Were + Not + KK-ing + O || S + Am/Are/Is + Not + KK-ing + O || S + Will +
|-
| Perfect || S + Had + Not + KK3 + O || S + Have/Has + Not + KK3 + O || S + Will +
|-
| Perfect Continuous || S + Had Not + Been
|}
* Ket: Subjek adalah pelaku dan objek adalah penderita.
===== Kalimat pasif =====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! !! Past !! Present !! Future !! Past Future
|-
| Simple || S + Was/Were + KK3 + By + O || S + Am/Are/Is + KK3 + By + O || S + Will + Be + KK3 + By + O || S + Would + Be + KK3 + By + O
|-
| Continuous || S + Was/Were + Being + KK3 + By + O || S + Am/Are/Is + Being + KK3 + By + O || S + Will + Be + Being + KK3 + By + O || S + Would + Be + Being + KK3 + O
|-
| Perfect || S + Had + Been + KK3 + By + O || S + Have/Has + Been + KK3 + O || S + Will + Have + Been + KK3 + O || S + Would + Have + Been + KK3 + O
|-
| Perfect Continuous || S + Had + Been + Being + KK3 + By + O || S + Have/Has + Been + Being + KK3 + By + O || S + Will + Have + Been + Being + KK3 + By + O || S + Would + Have + Been + Being + KK3 + By + O
|}
* Ket: Subjek adalah penderita dan objek adalah pelaku.
== Kata ganti ==
=== Orang ===
{{Main|Kata ganti orang}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Kata ganti orang Inggris<ref name=Borjars/>{{rp|52}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |Orang
! rowspan="2" |Nomor
! colspan="2" |Kasus
|-
! Subjek !! Objek
|-
| rowspan='2'|Pertama || Tunggal || I || me
|-
| Jamak || we || us
|-
| rowspan='2'|Kedua || Tunggal || you || you
|-
| Jamak || you || you
|-
| rowspan='2'|Ketiga || Tunggal || he, she, it || him, her, it
|-
| Jamak || they || them
|}
=== Refleksi ===
{{Main|Kata ganti refleksi}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Kata ganti refleksi Inggris<ref name=Borjars/>{{rp|52}}
|-
| I || myself
|-
| you || yourself
|-
| we || ourselves
|-
| they || themselves
|-
| you (jamak) || yourselves
|-
| he, she, it || himself, herself, itself
|}
=== Pemilik ===
{{Main|Kata ganti pemilik}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Kata ganti pemilik dalam bahasa Inggris<ref name=Borjars/>{{rp|52}}
|-
! Subjek !! Kata sifat !! Kata ganti
|-
| I || my || mine
|-
| you || your || yours
|-
| we || our || ours
|-
| they || their || theirs
|-
| he, she, it || his, her, its || his, hers, its
|}
=== Penanya ===
{{Main|Kata ganti penanya}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Kata ganti penanya Inggris<ref name=Borjars/>{{rp|52}}
|-
! Inggris !! Indonesia
|-
| how || bagaimana
|-
| who || siapa
|-
| what || apa
|-
| when || kapan
|-
| why || mengapa
|-
| where || di mana, ke mana, mana
|-
| which || yang mana
|-
| whose || milik siapa
|-
| whom || oleh siapa
|-
| how many || berapa (untuk benda dapat dihitung)
|-
| how much || berapa (untuk benda tidak dapat dihitung)
|}
=== Penunjuk ===
{{Main|Kata ganti penunjuk}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Kata ganti penunjuk Inggris<ref name=Borjars/>{{rp|52}}
|-
! Inggris !! Indonesia
|-
| this, these || ini
|-
| that, those || itu
|-
| this one || yang ini
|-
| that one || yang itu
|}
== Referensi ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== Daftar pustaka ==
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
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-->* {{cite book |last=Boberg |first=Charles |date=2010 |title=The English language in Canada: Status, history and comparative analysis |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49144-0 |series=Studies in English Language |lay-url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/cjl/summary/v056/56.2.brock.html |lay-date=2 April 2015 }}
<!-- BosworthToller1921
-->* {{cite web |last1=Bosworth |first1=Joseph |author-link1=Joseph Bosworth |last2=Toller |first2=T. Northcote |title=Engla land |work=[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]] (Online) |date=1921 |url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 |access-date=6 March 2015 |publisher=[[Charles University]] |archive-date=2012-12-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221212612/http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 |dead-url=no }}
<!-- BrintonBrinton2010
-->* {{cite book |last1=Brinton |first1=Laurel J. |last2=Brinton |first2=Donna M. |date=2010 |title=The linguistic structure of modern English |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-90-272-8824-0 |url=https://benjamins.com/#catalog/books/z.156/main |access-date=2 April 2015 |archive-date=2015-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501194533/https://benjamins.com/#catalog/books/z.156/main |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Brutt-Griffler2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Brutt-Griffler |first=J. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006441 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00644-1 |pages=690–697 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Languages of Wider Communication |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025627/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006441 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Burridge2010
-->* {{cite book |last=Burridge |first=Kate |chapter=Chapter 7: English in Australia |editor-last=Kirkpatrick |editor-first=Andy |date=2010 |title=The Routledge handbook of world Englishes |url=https://archive.org/details/routledgehandboo00kirk_142 |url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-62264-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/routledgehandboo00kirk_142/page/n154 132]–151 |lay-url=http://linguistlist.org/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?SubID=4525181 |lay-date=29 March 2015 }}
<!-- Campbell1959
-->* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Alistair |author-link=Alistair Campbell (academic) |title=Old English Grammar |url=https://archive.org/details/oldenglishgramma00camp |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=1959 |isbn=978-0-19-811943-2 }}
<!-- CarrHoneybone2007
-->* {{cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Philip |last2=Honeybone |first2=Patrick |date=2007 |title=English phonology and linguistic theory: an introduction to issues, and to 'Issues in English Phonology' |journal=Language Sciences |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=117–153 |doi=10.1016/j.langsci.2006.12.018 }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Cassidy1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Cassidy |first=Frederic G. |chapter=Geographical Variation of English in the United States |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=177–210 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- Cercignani1981
-->* {{cite book |last=Cercignani |first=Fausto |title=Shakespeare's works and Elizabethan pronunciation |date=1981 |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_JBlAAAAMAAJ |access-date=14 March 2015 |jstor=3728688 |isbn=978-0-19-811937-1 |lay-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200400/https://books.google.com/books?id=_JBlAAAAMAAJ |dead-url=no }}
<!-- CollingwoodMyres1936
-->* {{cite book |last1=Collingwood |first1=Robin George |author-link=R. G. Collingwood |last2=Myres |first2= J. N. L. |chapter=Chapter XX. The Sources for the period: Angles, Saxons, and Jutes on the Continent |title=Roman Britain and the English Settlements |volume=Book V: The English Settlements |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford, England |date=1936 |lccn=37002621 |jstor=2143838 |lay-date=15 March 2015 }}
<!-- CollinsMees2003
-->* {{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Beverley |last2=Mees |first2=Inger M. |year=2003 |orig-year=First published 1981 |title=The Phonetics of English and Dutch |url=https://archive.org/details/phoneticsofengli0000coll |edition=5th |place=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-10340-5 }}
<!-- Connell2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Connell |first=B. A. |title=Nigeria: Language Situation |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542016552 |access-date=25 March 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01655-2 |pages=88–90 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |archive-date=2015-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924145240/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542016552 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- ConradRubal-Lopez1996
-->* {{cite book |last1=Conrad |first1=Andrew W. |last2=Rubal-Lopez |first2=Alma |title=Post-Imperial English: Status Change in Former British and American Colonies, 1940–1990 |date=1996 |publisher=de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-087218-7 |url=http://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/143492 |access-date=2 April 2015 |page=261 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=2015-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924071825/http://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/143492 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite book |last=Cruttenden |first=Alan |date=2014 |title=Gimson's Pronunciation of English |edition=8th |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-4441-8309-2 }}
<!-- CrystalLanguageDeath2002
-->* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |author-link=David Crystal |title=Language Death |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2002 |url=http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9781139106856 |access-date=25 February 2015 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139106856 |isbn=978-1-139-10685-6 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402160417/http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9781139106856 |dead-url=yes }}
<!-- CrystalGlobalLanguage2003a
-->* {{Cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |title=English as a Global Language |author-link=David Crystal |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=69 |date=2003a |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6jPAKxTHRYC |access-date=4 February 2015 |isbn=978-0-521-53032-3 |lay-url=http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam041/2003282119.pdf |lay-source=Library of Congress (sample) |lay-date=4 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200407/https://books.google.com/books?id=d6jPAKxTHRYC |dead-url=no }}
<!-- CrystalEncyclopedia2003b
-->* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language |author-link=David Crystal |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003b |isbn=978-0-521-53033-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3b3ngEACAAJ |access-date=4 February 2015 |lay-url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/english-language-and-linguistics-general-interest/cambridge-encyclopedia-english-language-2nd-edition |lay-date=4 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200436/https://books.google.com/books?id=A3b3ngEACAAJ |dead-url=no }}
<!-- CrystalSubcontinent2004b
-->* {{cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=Subcontinent Raises Its Voice |year=2004 |url=http://education.guardian.co.uk/tefl/story/0,,1355064,00.html |access-date=4 February 2015 |newspaper=The Guardian |archive-date=2008-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417171455/http://education.guardian.co.uk/tefl/story/0,,1355064,00.html |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Crystal2006
-->* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |chapter=Chapter 9: English worldwide |title=A History of the English Language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-511-16893-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n435 420]–439 }}
<!-- DanielsBright1996
-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=Daniels |editor1-first=Peter T. |editor2-last=Bright |editor2-first=William |title=The World's Writing Systems |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=621jAAAAMAAJ |access-date=23 February 2015 |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507993-7 |lay-url=http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780195079937.do |lay-date=23 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200408/https://books.google.com/books?id=621jAAAAMAAJ |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Dehaene2009
-->* {{cite book |last=Dehaene |first=Stanislas |title=Reading in the Brain: The Science and Evolution of a Human Invention |date=2009 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-670-02110-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Z2hjwEACAAJ |access-date=3 April 2015 |lay-url=http://readinginthebrain.pagesperso-orange.fr/intro.htm |lay-date=3 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200401/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Z2hjwEACAAJ |dead-url=no }}
<!-- DenisonHogg2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Denison |first1=David |last2=Hogg |first2=Richard M. |chapter=Overview |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n45 30]–31 }}
<!-- DenningKesslerLeben2007
-->* {{cite book |last1=Denning |first1=Keith |last2=Kessler |first2=Brett |last3=Leben |first3=William Ronald |title=English Vocabulary Elements |date=17 February 2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-516803-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jz76l9RAccQC |access-date=25 February 2015 |lay-url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/english-vocabulary-elements-9780195168037?cc=us&lang=en& |lay-date=25 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200436/https://books.google.com/books?id=jz76l9RAccQC |dead-url=no }}
<!-- UKMinorityProtectionReport2007 author is Department for Communities and Local Government
-->* {{cite report |author=Department for Communities and Local Government (United Kingdom) |date=27 February 2007 |title=Second Report submitted by the United Kingdom pursuant to article 25, paragraph 1 of the framework convention for the protection of national minorities |url=https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/minorities/3_FCNMdocs/PDF_2nd_SR_UK_en.pdf |publisher=Council of Europe |docket=ACFC/SR/II(2007)003 rev<sup>1</sup> |access-date=6 March 2015 |ref={{harvid|UKMinorityProtectionReport|2007}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924020227/http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/minorities/3_FCNMdocs/PDF_2nd_SR_UK_en.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 }}
<!-- Deumert2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Deumert |first=A. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542012943 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01294-3 |pages=129–133 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Migration and Language |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025549/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542012943 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Dixon 1982
-->* {{cite journal |last=Dixon|first= R. M. W. |date=1982 |title=The grammar of English phrasal verbs |journal=Australian Journal of Linguistics |volume=2 |issue=1|doi=10.1080/07268608208599280 |pages=1–42}}
<!-- Donoghue2008
-->* {{cite book |last=Donoghue |first=D. |title=Old English Literature: A Short Introduction |publisher=Wiley |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-631-23486-9 |doi=10.1002/9780470776025 |editor1-last=Donoghue |editor1-first=Daniel }}
<!-- Durrell2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Durrell |first=M. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542021891 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/02189-1 |pages=53–55 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Germanic Languages |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2015-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924145318/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542021891 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Eagleson1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Eagleson |first=Robert D. |chapter=English in Australia and New Zealand |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=415–438 |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press }}
<!-- Ethnologue
-->* {{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size |title=Summary by language size |access-date=10 February 2015 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |ref={{harvid|Ethnologue|2010}} |archive-date=2018-12-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226040016/https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size |dead-url=no }}
<!-- EuropeanCommission2012
-->* {{cite report |author=European Commission |title=Special Eurobarometer 386: Europeans and Their Languages |date=June 2012 |series=Eurobarometer Special Surveys |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |access-date=12 February 2015 |lay-url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_sum_en.pdf |lay-date=27 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106183351/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2016 }}
<!--FasoldConnor-Linton2014
-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=Fasold |editor1-first=Ralph W. |editor2-last=Connor-Linton |editor2-first=Jeffrey |title=An Introduction to Language and Linguistics |edition=Second |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-06185-5 }}
<!-- Fischer-van der Wurff2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Olga |last2=van der Wurff |first2=Wim |chapter=Chapter 3: Syntax |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n124 109]–198 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Flemming |first1=Edward |last2=Johnson |first2=Stephanie |year=2007 |title=''Rosa's roses'': reduced vowels in American English |journal=[[Journal of the International Phonetic Association]] |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=83–96 |doi=10.1017/S0025100306002817 |url=http://web.mit.edu/flemming/www/paper/rosasroses.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.536.1989 |s2cid=145535175 |access-date=2021-09-15 |archive-date=2018-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919182406/http://web.mit.edu/flemming/www/paper/rosasroses.pdf |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Giegerich1992
-->* {{cite book |title=English Phonology: An Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/englishphonology0000gieg |first=Heinz J. |last=Giegerich |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-33603-1 |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics }}
<!-- Gneuss2013
-->* {{cite book |last=Gneuss |first=Helmut |chapter=Chapter 2: The Old English Language |editor1-last=Godden |editor1-first=Malcolm |editor2-last=Lapidge |editor2-first=Michael |date=2013 |title=The Cambridge companion to Old English literature |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000malc |edition=Second |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-15402-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000malc/page/19 19]–49 }}
<!-- Görlach1991
-->* {{cite book |last=Görlach |first=Manfred |title=Introduction to Early Modern English |date=1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-32529-5 }}
<!-- Gordin2015
-->* {{cite web |last=Gordin |first=Michael D. |title=Absolute English |url=http://aeon.co/magazine/science/how-did-science-come-to-speak-only-english/ |access-date=16 February 2015 |work=[[Aeon (digital magazine)|Aeon]] |date=4 February 2015 |archive-date=7 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207162247/http://aeon.co/magazine/science/how-did-science-come-to-speak-only-english/ |url-status=dead }}
<!-- GordonCampbellHay et al.2004
-->* {{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Campbell |first2= Lyle |last3=Hay |first3=Jennifer |last4=Maclagan |first4= Margaret |last5=Sudbury |first5=Angela |last6=Trudgill |first6=Peter |date=2004 |title=New Zealand English: its origins and evolution|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-10895-9 |series=Studies in English Language |ref={{harvid|Gordon|Campbell|Hay et al.|2004}}}}
<!-- Gottlieb2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Gottlieb |first=H. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542044552 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04455-2 |pages=196–206 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Linguistic Influence |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025550/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542044552 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Graddol2006
-->* {{cite book |last=Graddol |first=David |title=English Next: Why global English may mean the end of 'English as a Foreign Language' |author-link=David Graddol |url=http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next.pdf |access-date=7 February 2015 |date=2006 |publisher=The British Council |lay-url=http://eltj.oxfordjournals.org/content/61/1/81.extract |lay-source=ELT Journal |lay-date=7 February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212042939/http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2015 }}
<!-- Graddol2010
-->* {{cite book |last=Graddol |first=David |title=English Next India: The future of English in India |author-link=David Graddol |url=http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next-india-2010.pdf |access-date=7 February 2015 |date=2010 |publisher=The British Council |isbn=978-0-86355-627-2 |lay-url=http://eltj.oxfordjournals.org/content/65/3/356.extract |lay-source=ELT Journal |lay-date=7 February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212042654/http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next-india-2010.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2015 }}
<!-- GraddolLeithSwann et al.2007
-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=Graddol |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Leith |editor2-first=Dick |editor3-last=Swann |editor3-first=Joan |editor4-last=Rhys |editor4-first=Martin |editor5-last=Gillen |editor5-first=Julia |title=Changing English |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415376792/ |access-date=11 February 2015 |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-37679-2 |ref={{harvid|Graddol|Leith|Swann et al.|2007}} |archive-date=2015-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224062821/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415376792/ |dead-url=no }}
<!--Green2002
-->* {{cite book |last=Green |first=Lisa J. |date=2002 |title=African American English: a linguistic introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521891387 |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
<!-- Greenbaum
-->* {{cite book |last1=Greenbaum |first1=S. |last2=Nelson |first2=G. |title=An introduction to English grammar |date=2002 |edition=Second |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-582-43741-8 }}
<!-- Halliday & Hasan 1976
-->* {{cite book|last1=Halliday|first1=M. A. K.|last2=Hasan|first2=Ruqaiya|date=1976|title=Cohesion in English|publisher=Pearson Education ltd.}}
<!-- HancockAngogo1982
-->* {{cite book |last1=Hancock |first1=Ian F. |last2=Angogo |first2=Rachel |chapter=English in East Africa |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 |pages=415–438 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press }}
<!-- Harbert2006
-->* {{cite book |last=Harbert |first=Wayne |title=The Germanic Languages |url=http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9780511755071 |access-date=26 February 2015 |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-01511-0 |series=Cambridge Language Surveys |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511755071 |jstor=40492966 |lay-source=Language (journal of the Linguistic Society of America) |lay-date=26 February 2015 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402120615/http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9780511755071 |dead-url=yes }}
<!-- Hickey 2007
-->* {{cite book |last=Hickey |first=R. |date=2007 |title=Irish English: History and present-day forms |url=https://archive.org/details/irishenglishhist0000hick |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
<!-- Hickey 2005
-->* {{cite book|editor-last=Hickey|editor-first=R. |date=2005|title=Legacies of colonial English: Studies in transported dialects|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
<!-- Hogg1992
-->* {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Richard M. |s2cid=161881054 |chapter=Chapter 3: Phonology and Morphology |editor-last=Hogg |editor-first=Richard M. |title=The Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=1: The Beginnings to 1066 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-26474-7 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521264747 |pages=67–168 }}
<!-- Hogg2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Hogg |first1=Richard M. |chapter=Chapter7: English in Britain |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n375 360]–61 }}
<!--How English evolved into a global language
-->* {{cite web |title=How English evolved into a global language |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753 |date=20 December 2010 |publisher=BBC |access-date=9 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|How English evolved into a global language|2010}} |archive-date=2015-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925173407/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753 |dead-url=no }}
<!-- HowManyWords2015
-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=How many words are there in the English language? |work=Oxford Dictionaries Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2015 |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords |access-date=2 April 2015 |quote='''How many words are there in the English language?''' There is no single sensible answer to this question. It's impossible to count the number of words in a language, because it's so hard to decide what actually counts as a word. |ref={{harvid|HowManyWords|2015}} |archive-date=2011-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130011051/http://oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords |dead-url=yes }}
<!-- HuddlestonPullum2002
-->* {{cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Rodney |last2=Pullum |first2=Geoffrey K. |title=The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-43146-0 |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/grammar-and-syntax/cambridge-grammar-english-language |access-date=10 February 2015 |lay-url=http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~culicove/Publications/CGEL_Review.pdf |lay-date=10 February 2015 |archive-date=2015-02-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212000801/http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/grammar-and-syntax/cambridge-grammar-english-language |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Hughes & Trudgill 1996
-->* {{cite book |first1=Arthur |last1=Hughes |last2=Trudgill |first2=Peter |date=1996 |title=English Accents and Dialects |edition=3rd |publisher= Arnold Publishers }}
<!-- International Civil Aviation Organization
-->* {{cite web |author=International Civil Aviation Organization |title=Personnel Licensing FAQ |url=http://www.icao.int/safety/airnavigation/pages/peltrgfaq.aspx#anchor14 |access-date=16 December 2014 |publisher=International Civil Aviation Organization – Air Navigation Bureau |date=2011 |at=In which languages does a licence holder need to demonstrate proficiency? |quote=Controllers working on stations serving designated airports and routes used by international air services shall demonstrate language proficiency in English as well as in any other language(s) used by the station on the ground. |archive-date=2014-12-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220003044/http://www.icao.int/safety/airnavigation/pages/peltrgfaq.aspx#anchor14 |dead-url=no }}
<!-- International Maritime Organization
-->* {{cite web |author=International Maritime Organization |title=IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases |date=2011 |url=http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/StandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-date=2011-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003233938/http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/StandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx |dead-url=yes }}
<!-- International Phonetics Association 1999
-->* {{Cite book |last=International Phonetic Association |author-link=International Phonetic Association |date=1999 |title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofintern0000inte |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-65236-0 }}
<!-- Jambor2007
-->* {{cite journal |last=Jambor |first=Paul Z. |title=English Language Imperialism: Points of View |journal=Journal of English as an International Language |date=2007 |volume=2 |pages=103–123 }}
<!-- Jespersen 2007
-->* {{cite book |last=Jespersen |first=Otto |title=The Philosophy of Grammar |chapter=Case: The number of English cases |publisher=Routledge |orig-year=1924 |date=2007 }}
<!-- Kachru2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Kachru |first=B. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006453 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00645-3 |pages=195–202 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=English: World Englishes |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025619/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006453 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Kastovsky2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Kastovsky |first1=Dieter |chapter=Chapter 4: Vocabulary |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n214 199]–270 }}
<!-- KönigvanderAuwera1994
-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=König |editor1-first=Ekkehard |editor2-last=van der Auwera |editor2-first=Johan |title=The Germanic Languages |date=1994 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-28079-2 |series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |access-date=26 February 2015 |jstor=4176538 |lay-date=26 February 2015 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101046/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |dead-url=no }} The survey of the Germanic branch languages includes chapters by Winfred P. Lehmann, Ans van Kemenade, John Ole Askedal, Erik Andersson, Neil Jacobs, Silke Van Ness, and Suzanne Romaine.
<!-- König 1994
-->* {{cite book |last=König |first=Ekkehard |chapter=17. English |pages=532–562 |editor1-last=König |editor1-first=Ekkehard |editor2-last=van der Auwera |editor2-first=Johan |title=The Germanic Languages |date=1994 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-28079-2 |series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions |chapter-url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |access-date=26 February 2015 |jstor=4176538 |lay-date=26 February 2015 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101046/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Labov 1972
-->* {{cite book |last=Labov |first=W. |date=1972 |title=Sociolinguistic patterns |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |chapter= 13. The Social Stratification of (R) in New York City Department Stores }}
<!-- Labov 2012
-->* {{cite book |last=Labov |first=W. |date=2012|title=Dialect Diversity in America: The Politics of Language Change|url=https://archive.org/details/dialectdiversity0000labo |publisher=University of Virginia Press |chapter= 1. About Language and Language Change }}
<!-- LabovAshBoberg2006 named reference was ANAE
-->* {{cite book |last1=Labov |first1=William |author-link1=William Labov |last2=Ash |first2=Sharon |last3=Boberg |first3=Charles |date=2006 |title=The Atlas of North American English |location=Berlin |publisher=de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-016746-7 |url=http://www.degruyter.com/view/product/178229?rskey=eUyN34&result=2 |access-date=2 April 2015 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=2015-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924044744/http://www.degruyter.com/view/product/178229?rskey=eUyN34&result=2 |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Lanham 1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Lanham |first=L. W. |chapter=English in South Africa |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=324–352 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!--Lass 1992
-->* {{cite book |last=Lass |first=Roger |chapter=2. Phonology and Morphology |editor1-last=Blake |editor1-first=Norman |title=Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=II: 1066–1476 |pages=23–154 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1992 }}
<!-- Lass2000
-->* {{cite book |last=Lass |first=Roger |chapter=Chapter 3: Phonology and Morphology |editor-first=Roger |editor-last=Lass |title=The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume III: 1476–1776 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |date=2000 |pages=56–186 }}
<!-- Lass 2002
-->* {{citation |last=Lass |first=Roger |chapter=South African English |editor-last=Mesthrie |editor-first=Rajend |date=2002 |title=Language in South Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79105-2}}
<!-- Lass2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Lass |first1=Roger |chapter=Chapter 2: Phonology and Morphology |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n61 46]–47 }}
<!-- Lawler2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Lawler |first=J. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045739 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04573-9 |pages=290–291 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Punctuation |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025558/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045739 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Lawton 1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Lawton |first=David L. |chapter=English in the Caribbean |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=251–280 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- Leech 2006
-->* {{cite book |last=Leech |first=G. N. |date=2006 |title=A glossary of English grammar |url=https://archive.org/details/glossaryofenglis0000leec |publisher=Edinburgh University Press }}
<!-- LeechHundtMairSmith2009
-->* {{cite book |url=http://english.fullerton.edu/publications/clnarchives/2012winter/angus-chng contemp_eng.pdf |last1=Leech |first1=Geoffrey |last2=Hundt |first2=Marianne |last3=Mair |first3=Christian |last4=Smith |first4=Nicholas |title=Change in contemporary English: a grammatical study |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-86722-1 |lay-url=http://english.fullerton.edu/publications/clnarchives/2012winter/angus-chng contemp_eng.pdf |lay-date=29 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402140536/http://english.fullerton.edu/publications/clnarchives/2012winter/angus-chng |archive-date=2015-04-02 |access-date=22 September 2016 |dead-url=yes }}
<!-- LevineCrocket1966
-->* {{cite journal |last1=Levine |first1=L. |last2=Crockett |first2=H. J. |date=1966 |title=Speech Variation in a Piedmont Community: Postvocalic r*|journal=Sociological Inquiry |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=204–226 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-682x.1966.tb00625.x}}
<!-- Li2003
-->* {{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=David C. S. |title=Between English and Esperanto: what does it take to be a world language? |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |volume=2003 |issue=164 |pages=33–63 |date=2003 |issn=0165-2516 |doi=10.1515/ijsl.2003.055 }}
<!-- LimAnsaldo2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Lim |first1=L. |last2=Ansaldo |first2=U. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017016 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01701-6 |pages=387–389 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Singapore: Language Situation |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025540/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017016 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Maclagan 2010
-->* {{cite book |last=Maclagan |first=Margaret |chapter=Chapter 8: The English(es) of New Zealand |editor-last=Kirkpatrick |editor-first=Andy |date=2010 |title=The Routledge handbook of world Englishes |url=https://archive.org/details/routledgehandboo00kirk |url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/routledgehandboo00kirk/page/n173 151]–164 |isbn=978-0-203-84932-3 |lay-url=http://linguistlist.org/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?SubID=4525181 |lay-date=29 March 2015 }}
<!--MacMahon 2006
-->* {{cite book |last=MacMahon |first=M. K. |date=2006 |chapter=16. English Phonetics |editor1=Bas Aarts |editor2=April McMahon |title=The Handbook of English Linguistics |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookenglishl00mcma |url-access=limited |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookenglishl00mcma/page/n372 359]–382 |isbn=9781405113823 }}
<!-- Macquarie Dictionary2015
-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |url=https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/ |title=Macquarie Dictionary |website=Australia's National Dictionary & Thesaurus Online | Macquarie Dictionary |date=2015 |publisher=Macmillan Publishers Group Australia |access-date=15 February 2015 |url-access=registration |ref={{harvid|Macquarie Dictionary|2015}} |archive-date=2019-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721141547/https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/ |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Mair & Leech 2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Mair |first1=C. |last2=Leech |first2=G. |date=2006 |chapter=14 Current Changes in English Syntax |title=The handbook of English linguistics }}
<!-- Mair 2006
-->* {{cite book |last=Mair |first=Christian |date=2006 |title=Twentieth-century English: History, variation and standardization |url=https://archive.org/details/twentiethcentury0000mair |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
<!-- MazruiMazrui1998 was refMazrui1998
-->* {{cite book |last1=Mazrui |first1=Ali A. |last2=Mazrui |first2=Alamin |title=The Power of Babel: Language and Governance in the African Experience |date=1998 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-51429-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lQTPxdYx8kC |access-date=15 February 2015 |lay-url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo3618917.html |lay-date=15 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200404/https://books.google.com/books?id=6lQTPxdYx8kC |dead-url=no }}
<!-- McArthur1992
-->* {{cite book |editor-last=McArthur |editor-first=Tom |title=The Oxford Companion to the English Language |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-19-214183-5 |lay-url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800619.001.0001/acref-9780192800619 |lay-date=15 February 2015 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800619.001.0001 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00mcar }}
<!-- McCrumMacNeilCran2003
-->* {{Cite book |last1=McCrum |first1=Robert |last2=MacNeil |first2=Robert |last3=Cran |first3=William |title=The Story of English |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofenglish0000mccr_c8l9 |location=London |date=2003 |edition=Third Revised |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-200231-5 }}
<!-- McGuinness1997
-->* {{cite book |last=McGuinness |first=Diane |title=Why Our Children Can't Read, and what We Can Do about it: A Scientific Revolution in Reading |author-link=Diane McGuinness |date=1997 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-83161-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F-q02ZBKh3wC |access-date=3 April 2015 |lay-url=http://fee.org/freeman/detail/why-our-children-cant-read-and-what-we-can-do-about-it |lay-date=3 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200441/https://books.google.com/books?id=F-q02ZBKh3wC |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Meierkord2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Meierkord |first=C. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006416 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00641-6 |pages=163–171 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Lingua Francas as Second Languages |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025639/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006416 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- MerriamWebster2015
-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=English |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=26 February 2015 |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/English |access-date=26 February 2015 |ref={{harvid|Merriam Webster|2015}} |archive-date=2015-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325140932/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/english |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Methrie2006
-->* {{cite journal |last=Mesthrie |first=Rajend |title=New Englishes and the native speaker debate |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_language-sciences_2010-11_32_6/page/594 |journal=Language Sciences |date=2010 |issn=0388-0001 |doi=10.1016/j.langsci.2010.08.002 |pages=594–601 |volume=32 |issue=6 }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Miller 2002
-->* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Jim |date=2002 |title=An Introduction to English Syntax |publisher=Edinburgh University Press }}
<!-- Montgomery
-->* {{cite journal |last=Montgomery |first=M. |date=1993 |title=The Southern Accent—Alive and Well |journal=Southern Cultures |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=47–64 |doi=10.1353/scu.1993.0006 |s2cid=143984864 }}
<!-- Mountford2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Mountford |first=J. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050185 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05018-5 |pages=156–159 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=English Spelling: Rationale |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025550/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050185 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Mufwene2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Mufwene |first=S. S. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542012918 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01291-8 |pages=613–616 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Language Spread |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025600/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542012918 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Nation2001 needs more verification
-->* {{Cite book |last=Nation |first=I. S. P. |title=Learning Vocabulary in Another Language |author-link=Paul Nation |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sKqx8k8gYTkC |access-date=4 February 2015 |page=477 |isbn=978-0-521-80498-1 |lay-url=http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam031/2001269892.pdf |lay-date=4 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200409/https://books.google.com/books?id=sKqx8k8gYTkC |dead-url=no }}
<!-- National Records of Scotland2013 official census data for Scotland
-->* {{cite web |author=National Records of Scotland |title=Census 2011: Release 2A |series=Scotland's Census 2011 |date=26 September 2013 |url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/news/census-2011-release-2a |access-date=25 March 2015 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402152137/http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/news/census-2011-release-2a |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Neijt2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Neijt |first=A. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045740 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04574-0 |pages=68–71 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Spelling Reform |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025639/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045740 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- NevalainenTieken-Boon van Ostade2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Nevalainen |first1=Terttu |last2=Tieken-Boon van Ostade |first2=Ingrid |chapter=Chapter 5: Standardization |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 }}
<!-- Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency2012
-->* {{cite web |author=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency |title=Census 2011: Key Statistics for Northern Ireland December 2012 |periodical=Statistics Bulletin |date=2012 |url=http://www.nisra.gov.uk/Census/key_report_2011.pdf |access-date=16 December 2014 |at=Table KS207NI: Main Language |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224033625/http://www.nisra.gov.uk/Census/key_report_2011.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2012 }}
<!-- Northrup2013
-->* {{cite book |last=Northrup |first=David |title=How English Became the Global Language |date=2013 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-30306-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YPAlPeB6IvQC |access-date=25 March 2015 |lay-url=http://www.palgrave.com/page/detail/how-english-became-the-global-language-david-northrup/?K=9781137303066 |lay-date=25 March 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200433/https://books.google.com/books?id=YPAlPeB6IvQC |dead-url=no }}
<!-- O'Dwyer 2006
-->* {{cite book |first=Bernard |last=O'Dwyer |title= Modern English Structures, second edition: Form, Function, and Position |publisher=Broadview Press |date=2006 }}
<!-- Office for National Statistics official census figures for England and Wales
-->* {{cite web |author=Office for National Statistics |title=Language in England and Wales, 2011 |date=4 March 2013 |periodical=2011 Census Analysis |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/language-in-england-and-wales-2011/rpt---language-in-england-and-wales--2011.html |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115009/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/language-in-england-and-wales-2011/rpt---language-in-england-and-wales--2011.html |dead-url=no }}
<!-- OxfordLearner'sDictionary
-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Oxford Learner's Dictionaries |url=http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/ |access-date=25 February 2015 |publisher=Oxford |ref={{harvid|Oxford Learner's Dictionary|2015}} |archive-date=2015-02-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209040312/http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/ |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Patrick2006aJamaica
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Patrick |first=P. L. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006a |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017600 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01760-0 |pages=88–90 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Jamaica: Language Situation |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025554/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017600 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Patrick2006bAAVE
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Patrick |first=P. L. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006b |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050926 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05092-6 |pages=159–163 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=English, African-American Vernacular |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025630/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050926 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Payne & Huddleston 2002
-->* {{cite book |last1=Payne |last2=Huddleston |first1=John |first2=Rodney |chapter=5. Nouns and noun phrases |editor1-last=Huddleston |editor2-last=Pullum |editor1-first=R. |editor2-first=G. K. |date=2002 |title=The Cambridge Grammar of English |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=323–522 }}
<!-- Phillipson2004
-->* {{cite book |last=Phillipson |first=Robert |title=English-Only Europe?: Challenging Language Policy |date=28 April 2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-44349-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HiCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |access-date=15 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200434/https://books.google.com/books?id=9HiCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Richter2012
-->* {{cite book |last=Richter |first=Ingo |chapter=Introduction |editor1-last=Richter |editor1-first=Dagmar |editor2-last=Richter |editor2-first=Ingo |editor3-last=Toivanen |editor3-first=Reeta |display-editors=3 |editor4-last=Ulasiuk |editor4-first=Iryna |title=Language Rights Revisited: The challenge of global migration and communication |date=2012 |publisher=BWV Verlag |isbn=978-3-8305-2809-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3u9kBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |access-date=2 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200439/https://books.google.com/books?id=3u9kBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Roach1999
-->* {{cite book |last=Roach |first=Peter |title=English Phonetics and Phonology |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge |edition=4th }}
<!-- Robinson1992
-->* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Orrin |author-link=Orrin W. Robinson (philologist) |title=Old English and Its Closest Relatives: A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-8047-2221-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/oldenglishitsclo0000robi |url-access=registration |access-date=5 April 2015 |lay-url=http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=3026 |lay-date=5 April 2015 }}
<!-- Romaine1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Romaine |first=Suzanne |chapter=English in Scotland |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=56–83 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- Romaine1999
-->* {{cite book |last=Romaine |first=Suzanne |chapter=Chapter 1: Introduction |title=Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=IV: 1776–1997 |editor-last=Romaine |editor-first=Suzanne |pages=01–56 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-26477-8 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521264778.002 }}
<!-- Romaine2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Romaine |first=S. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006465 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00646-5 |pages=584–596 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Language Policy in Multilingual Educational Contexts |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025554/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006465 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Routes of English
-->* {{cite web |title=The Routes of English |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/routesofenglish/storysofar/programme4_6.shtml |date=1 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|The Routes of English}} |access-date=2021-09-15 |archive-date=2015-10-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151024081346/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/routesofenglish/storysofar/programme4_6.shtml |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Rowicka2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Rowicka |first=G. J. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542018484 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01848-4 |pages=194–195 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Canada: Language Situation |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025543/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542018484 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Rubino2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Rubino |first=C. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017363 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01736-3 |pages=323–326 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Philippines: Language Situation |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025632/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017363 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Ryan2013 an official report of the United States Census
-->* {{cite web |last=Ryan |first=Camille |title=Language Use in the United States: 2011 |periodical=American Community Survey Reports |date=August 2013 |page=1 |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205101044/http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}
<!-- Sailaja 2009
-->* {{cite book |last=Sailaja |first=Pingali |title=Indian English |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-7486-2595-6 |series=Dialects of English |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntxWxuoRBiwC |access-date=5 April 2015 |lay-url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/indian-english-9780748625949?cc=us&lang=en& |lay-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200426/https://books.google.com/books?id=ntxWxuoRBiwC |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Schiffrin 1988
-->* {{cite book |last=Schiffrin |first=Deborah |date=1988 |title=Discourse Markers |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-35718-0 |series=Studies in Interactional Sociolinguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hs7J-WqPtPAC |access-date=5 April 2015 |lay-url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/sociolinguistics/discourse-markers |lay-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200436/https://books.google.com/books?id=hs7J-WqPtPAC |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Schneider2007
-->* {{cite book |last=Schneider |first=Edgar |title=Postcolonial English: Varieties Around the World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-53901-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIE6zGSd8okC |access-date=5 April 2015 |lay-url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/sociolinguistics/postcolonial-english-varieties-around-world |lay-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200423/https://books.google.com/books?id=QIE6zGSd8okC |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Schonweitz2001
-->* {{cite journal |last=Schönweitz |first=Thomas |title=Gender and Postvocalic /r/ in the American South: A Detailed Socioregional Analysis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-speech_fall-2001_76_3/page/259 |journal=American Speech |volume=76 |issue=3 |date=2001 |pages=259–285 |doi=10.1215/00031283-76-3-259 |s2cid=144403823 }}
<!-- Shaywitz2003
-->* {{cite book |last=Shaywitz |first=Sally E. |title=Overcoming Dyslexia: A New and Complete Science-based Program for Reading Problems at Any Level |date=2003 |publisher=A.A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-375-40012-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXbZ1QInSF0C |access-date=3 April 2015 |lay-url=http://dyslexia.yale.edu/book_Overcoming.html |lay-date=3 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200441/https://books.google.com/books?id=hXbZ1QInSF0C |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Sheidlower2006
-->* {{cite news |last=Sheidlower |first=Jesse |title=How many words are there in English? |newspaper=Slate Magazine |date=10 April 2006 |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2139611/ |access-date=2 April 2015 |quote=The problem with trying to number the words in any language is that it's very hard to agree on the basics. For example, what is a word? |archive-date=2011-09-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916170635/http://www.slate.com/id/2139611/ |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Scheler1977
-->* {{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Manfred|year=1977|title=Der englische Wortschatz [English Vocabulary]|location=Berlin|publisher=E. Schmidt|language=de|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GchZAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-3-503-01250-3|access-date=2021-09-15|archive-date=2023-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200424/https://books.google.com/books?id=GchZAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
<!-- Smith2009
-->* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Jeremy J. |title=Old English: a linguistic introduction |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-86677-4 }}
<!-- Statistics Canada2014 official census of Canada
-->* {{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |title=Population by mother tongue and age groups (total), 2011 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories |date=22 August 2014 |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Pages/highlight.cfm?TabID=1&Lang=E&Asc=0&PRCode=01&OrderBy=2&View=1&tableID=401&queryID=1&Age=1#TableSummary |access-date=25 March 2015 |archive-date=2018-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726032921/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Pages/highlight.cfm?TabID=1&Lang=E&Asc=0&PRCode=01&OrderBy=2&View=1&tableID=401&queryID=1&Age=1#TableSummary |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Statistics New Zealand2014 official census of New Zealand
-->* {{cite web |author=Statistics New Zealand |title=2013 QuickStats About Culture and Identity |date=April 2014 |url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013 Census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/quickstats-culture-identity.pdf |page=23 |access-date=25 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115195639/http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013 |archive-date=2015-01-15 |dead-url=yes }}
<!-- Statistics South Africa2012 official census of South Africa
-->* {{cite book |publisher=Statistics South Africa |title=Census 2011: Census in Brief |id=Report No. 03‑01‑41 |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-621-41388-5 |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf |chapter=Population by first language spoken and province |ref={{SfnRef|Statistics South Africa|2012}} |page=23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151113164744/http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2015 |url-status=live |chapter-url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf#page=28 |editor-first=Pali |editor-last=Lehohla |location=Pretoria }}
<!-- SvartikLeech2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Svartvik |first1=Jan |last2=Leech |first2=Geoffrey |title=English – One Tongue, Many Voices |date=2006 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-1830-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/englishonetongue0000svar |url-access=registration |access-date=5 March 2015 |lay-url=http://linguistlist.org/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?SubID=116884 |lay-date=16 March 2015 }}
<!-- Swan2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Swan |first=M. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050586 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05058-6 |pages=149–156 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=English in the Present Day (Since ca. 1900) |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025601/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050586 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Sweet1892
-->* {{cite book |last=Sweet |first=Henry |title=A New English Grammar |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2014 |orig-year=1892 }}
<!-- Thomas 2008
-->* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Erik R. |date=2008 |chapter=Rural Southern white accents |title=Varieties of English |volume=2: The Americas and the Caribbean |pages=87–114 |editor=Edgar W. Schneider |publisher=de Gruyter |doi=10.1515/9783110208405.1.87 |isbn=978-3-11-020840-5 }}
<!-- ThomasonKaufman1988
-->* {{cite book |last1=Thomason |first1=Sarah G. |author-link=Sarah Thomason |last2=Kaufman |first2=Terrence |author-link2=Terrence Kaufman |title=Language Contact, Creolization and Genetic Linguistics |url=https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_afr_detail-2 |publisher=University of California Press |date=1988 |isbn=978-0-520-91279-3 }}
<!-- Todd1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Todd |first=Loreto |chapter=The English language in West Africa |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=281–305 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- Toon1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Toon |first=Thomas E. |chapter=Variation in Contemporary American English |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=210–250 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- Toon1992
-->* {{cite book |last=Toon |first=Thomas E. |chapter=Old English Dialects |editor-last=Hogg |editor-first=Richard M. |title=The Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=1: The Beginnings to 1066 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-26474-7 |pages=409–451 }}
<!-- TraskTrask2010
-->* {{cite book |last1=Trask |first1=Larry |last2=Trask |first2=Robert Lawrence |title=Why Do Languages Change? |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-83802-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qoZzBgCmFMC |access-date=5 March 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200449/https://books.google.com/books?id=9qoZzBgCmFMC |dead-url=no }}
<!-- Trudgill 1999
-->* {{cite book |last=Trudgill |first=Peter |date=1999 |title=The Dialects of England |url=https://archive.org/details/dialectsofenglan0000trud_f6f5 |edition=2nd |publisher=Blackwell |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-631-21815-9 |lay-url=http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0631218157.html |lay-date=27 March 2015 }}
<!-- Trudgill2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Trudgill |first=P. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542015066 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01506-6 |page=14 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Accent |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025601/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542015066 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Trudgill & Hannah 2002 replace with 2008 5th edition
-->* {{cite book |last1=Trudgill |first1=Peter |first2=Jean |last2=Hannah |date=2002 |title=International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English |edition=4th |location=London |publisher=Hodder Education |isbn=978-0-340-80834-4 }}
<!-- Trudgill & Hannah 2008
-->* {{cite book |last1=Trudgill |first1=Peter |first2=Jean |last2=Hannah |date=2008 |title=International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English |edition=5th |location=London |publisher=Arnold |isbn=978-0-340-97161-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e8u8MR8MNaEC |access-date=26 March 2015 |lay-url=http://www.tandf.net/books/details/9780340971611/ |lay-date=26 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402131243/http://www.tandf.net/books/details/9780340971611/ |archive-date=2 April 2015 }}
<!-- United Nations2008
-->* {{cite web |author=United Nations |title=Everything You Always Wanted to Know About the United Nations |date=2008 |url=https://www.un.org/wcm/webdav/site/visitors/shared/documents/pdfs/Pub_United Nations_Everything U Always wanted to know.pdf |access-date=4 April 2015 |quote=The working languages at the UN Secretariat are English and French. }}
<!-- Wardhaugh2010
-->* {{cite book |last=Wardhaugh |first=Ronald |title=An Introduction to Sociolinguistics |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoso0000ward_i6k0 |edition=Sixth |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |date=2010 |isbn=978-1-4051-8668-1 |series=Blackwell textbooks in Linguistics; 4 }}
<!-- Watts2011
-->* {{cite book |last=Watts |first=Richard J. |title=Language Myths and the History of English |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-532760-1 |url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327601.001.0001/acprof-9780195327601 |access-date=10 March 2015 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327601.001.0001 |lay-url=http://linguistlist.org/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?SubID=4544145 |lay-date=10 March 2015 |archive-date=2015-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318165831/http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327601.001.0001/acprof-9780195327601 |dead-url=no }}
<!--Wells 1982
-->* {{Accents of English}}
<!-- Wojcik2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Wojcik |first=R. H. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050811 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05081-1 |pages=139–142 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Controlled Languages |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025557/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050811 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
<!-- Wolfram2006
-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Wolfram |first=W. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542042565 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04256-5 |pages=333–341 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Variation and Language: Overview |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025635/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542042565 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}
{{refend}}
== Lihat pula ==
Baris 220 ⟶ 974:
* [[Bahasa Inggris Kuno]]
* [[Bahasa Inggris Pertengahan]]
* [[TOEFL]]
== Pranala luar ==
Baris 232 ⟶ 987:
* {{en}} [http://www.ego4u.com/ English Grammar Online] - latihan, penjelasan dan permainan gratis
* {{en}} [http://www.eslbase.com/ TEFL] - ''Teaching English as a Foreign Language'' - informasi mengenai pengajaran Bahasa Inggris sebagai Bahasa Asing
* {{en}} [http://www.omni-translation.com/belajar-bahasa-inggeris/ Konsep Asas Bahasa Inggeris] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125030834/http://www.omni-translation.com/belajar-bahasa-inggeris/ |date=2016-01-25 }}
* {{en}} [http://www.LanguageMonitor.com LanguageMonitor] - Lembaga pengawas pemakaian bahasa Inggris kontemporer
* {{en}} [http://www.vec.ca/english/1/english.cfm Perkembangan Bahasa Inggris] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040722195930/http://www.vec.ca/english/1/english.cfm |date=2004-07-22 }}
=== Kamus ===
* {{en}} [http://dictionary.cambridge.org Cambridge Dictionary]
* {{En icon}} [https://www.dictionary.com/ Dictionary.com]
* {{en}} [http://www.ldoceonline.com Longman English Dictionary]
* {{en}} [http://
* {{En icon}} [https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com Oxford Learner's Dictionary]
* {{en}} [https://wordweb.info/ WordWeb]
=== Tesaurus ===
* '''{{En icon}}''' [https://www.thesaurus.com/ Thesaurus.com]
=== Esai ===
* {{id}} [http://www.ef.co.id/englishfirst/englishstudy/writing/belajar-menulis-essay-bahasa-inggris.aspx Belajar Menulis Essay Bahasa Inggris]
* {{en}} [http://www.wikihow.com/Write-an-English-Essay How to Write an English Essay]
* {{en}} [http://esl.about.com/cs/writing/ht/ht_essay.htm How To Write an Essay] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121061439/http://esl.about.com/cs/writing/ht/ht_essay.htm |date=2016-11-21 }}
* {{en}} [http://study.com/academy/lesson/how-to-write-a-great-essay-quickly.html How to Write a Great Essay Quickly]
=== Intonasi ===
* {{en}} [http://www.ipc.hokusei.ac.jp/~z00419/Frame-RiseFall.html Example English intonation + audio]
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Inggris, Bahasa}}
[[Kategori:Bahasa Inggris| ]]
[[Kategori:Bahasa analitis]]
[[Kategori:Rumpun bahasa Anglik]]
[[Kategori:Bahasa inflektif]]
[[Kategori:Rumpun bahasa Jermanik]]
[[Kategori:Basantara]]
[[Kategori:Bahasa stress-timed]]
[[Kategori:Bahasa subjek-verba-objek]]
[[Kategori:Globalisasi budaya]]
[[Kategori:Bahasa yang diakui oleh Sahitya Akademi]]
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