Peradaban Lembah Indus: Perbedaan antara revisi
Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan
k robot Adding: lt:Indo slėnio civilizacija |
k Daftar penuh Indus Script. |
||
| (126 revisi perantara oleh 59 pengguna tidak ditampilkan) | |||
Baris 1:
{{Infobox archaeological culture
|map = Indus Valley Civilization, Mature Phase (2600-1900 BCE).png
|mapalt = Situs-situs utama IVC
|region = [[Asia Selatan]]
|period = [[Zaman Perunggu]]
|dates = {{circa|3300|1700 BCE}}<ref name="indusmilleniumold"/><ref name="milleniumold"/>
|precededby =[[:en:Mehrgarh|Mehrgarh]]
|followedby = [[Periode Weda]]
}}
[[Berkas:indusvalleyexcavation.jpg|jmpl|350px|Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus berada sepanjang [[Sungai Indus]] di [[Pakistan]] sekarang ini. Puing [[Mohenjo-daro]] difoto di atas merupakan pusat dari masyarakat kuno ini.]]
[[Berkas:CiviltàValleIndoMappa.png|jmpl|Lokasi kota-kota kuno di [[Lembah]] [[Sungai Indus]]]]
[[Berkas:Alfabeto Harappa o Vallindo.jpg|jmpl|Daftar penuh Indus Script.]]
'''Peradaban Indus''',<ref>For example, in the titles of the works used to reference this article by Habib (2015), Marshall (ed., 1931 and 1996), Parpola (2015), Possehl (2002), and Sullivan (1964)</ref> [[abad ke-28 SM|2800 SM]]–[[abad ke-18 SM|1800 SM]], merupakan sebuah peradaban kuno yang hidup sepanjang [[Sungai Indus]] yang sekarang merupakan wilayah [[Pakistan]] dan [[India]] barat.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Indus Valley Civilization|url=https://www.ancient.eu/Indus_Valley_Civilization/|website=Ancient History Encyclopedia|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref> Peradaban ini juga dikenal peradaban yang berpusat di kota Mohenjo Daro dan Harrapa.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Sejarah Peradaban India Kuno|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2020/05/29/113000769/sejarah-peradaban-india-kuno|work=[[Kompas.com]]|language=id|access-date=2020-08-30|editor-last=Welianto|editor-first=Ari|first=Ari|last=Welianto}}</ref> Keruntuhan peradaban ini ditengarai disebabkan [[Sungai Saraswati Weda|Sungai Saraswati Veda]] yang mengalami kekeringan pada sekitar akhir 1900 SM akibat tingkat radiasi matahari yang cukup tinggi sehingga memengaruhi curah hujan di sekitar lembah.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marris|first=Emma|title=Two-hundred-year drought doomed Indus Valley Civilization|url=http://www.nature.com/news/two-hundred-year-drought-doomed-indus-valley-civilization-1.14800|journal=Nature News|language=en|doi=10.1038/nature.2014.14800}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Climate change led to collapse of ancient Indus civilization, study finds|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/05/120528154943.htm|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref> Para arkeolog mengungkapkan peradaban Lembah Indus merupakan peradaban kuno paling luas yang ditemukan setelah situs peradaban Mesopotamia dan Mesir. Pada tahun 1980 peradaban Lembah Indus ditetapkan sebagai situs warisan dunia oleh UNESCO.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indus civilization {{!}} History, Location, Map, Art, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref>
[http://www.archaeologyonline.net/indology/sarasvati-map-crop.jpg] <ref>{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060507143339/http://archaeologyonline.net/indology/sarasvati-map-crop.jpg |date=2006-05-07}}</ref>
[[Berkas:IVC-major-sites-2.jpg|jmpl|ka|350px|Sejumlah situs utama Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus]]
==
Orang-orang Dravida atau penutur bahasa Proto-Dravida (leluhur dari Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, dan Malayalam) yang diperkirakan merupakan pendiri kota kuno ini sendiri masih menjadi perdebatan dikalangan para arkeolog.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Joseph|first=Tony|date=2017-12-23|title=Who built the Indus Valley civilisation?|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/who-built-the-indus-valley-civilisation/article22261315.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref> Riwayat mereka tak dapat ditelusuri hingga sekarang. Bahasa dan aksara mereka dalam artefak-artefak yang ditemukan di sana masih sedikit yang dapat dipecahkan hingga sekarang.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=M. A.|first=Anthropology|last2=B. Ed.|first2=Illinois State University|title=Archaeological Evidence for Indus Civilization Script and Seals|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/seals-and-the-indus-civilization-script-171330|website=ThoughtCo|language=en|access-date=2020-08-31|last3=Twitter|first3=Twitter}}</ref> Uniknya di kota tersebut tidak ditemukan bangunan untuk kegiatan religius dan tanda-tanda sistem kasta seperti kuil-kuil dan monumen besar yang megah.<ref name=":2"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Early Civilization in the Indus Valley [ushistory.org]|url=https://www.ushistory.org/civ/8a.asp|website=www.ushistory.org|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref> Hal ini mengakibatkan para peneliti berspekulasi kalau masyarakat Mohenjo Daro dan Harappa merupakan peradaban yang hidup bergantung sepenuhnya pada ilmu pengetahuan (sudah meninggalkan praktik keagamaan) dan memiliki filosofi hidup yang tinggi (terlihat dari ketiadaan sistem kasta dalam hierarki sosial).<ref>[http://www.merdeka.com/gaya/6-situs-misterius-dunia-yang-keberadaannya-nyaris-terlupakan/kota-kuno-mohenjo-daro-dan-harappa-india.html Kota kuno Mohenjo Daro dan Harappa, India]</ref> Berdasarkan dari peninggalan yang ditemukan, mereka merupakan salah satu peradaban yang sudah maju dengan adanya bukti timbangan dan ukuran yang sudah memiliki standar, ukiran cap, stempel perangko, tembikar dan telah mengenal teknik peleburan logam seperti tembaga, perunggu, dan timah.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Indus River Valley civilizations (article)|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/world-history-beginnings/ancient-india/a/the-indus-river-valley-civilizations|website=Khan Academy|language=en|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref> Disamping itu Mohenjo Daro dan Harappa merupakan kota yang sangat berkembang, banyak rumah yang memiliki sumur dan kamar mandi serta sistem saluran air bawah tanah yang kompleks.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2009-10-09|title=Lost City of Mohenjo Daro Puzzles Archaeologists|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/archaeology/mohenjo-daro/|website=Science|language=en|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kenoyer|first=Jonathan M|date=1991|title=The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India|url=https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/pdf/Kenoyer1991%20Indus%20Valley%20Tradition.pdf|journal=Journal of World Prehistory|volume=5|issue=4|pages=353|doi=}}</ref>
==
Keruntuhan peradaban ini diduga disebabkan oleh perubahan iklim. Perubahan iklim pada masa itu menyebabkan [[zaman es kecil]] yang mengakibatkan musim kemarau menjadi lebih kering yang berdampak negatif terhadap pertanian. Hal inilah yang membuat masyarakat peradaban tersebut pindah ke desa-desa kecil di kaki bukit [[Himalaya]]. Selain itu pada saat yang sama datang peradaban Indo-Arya dengan membawa peralatan yang lebih canggih.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/131243316/peradaban-lembah-sungai-indus-di-himalaya-runtuh-ini-penyebabnya?|title= Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus di Himalaya Runtuh, Ini Penyebabnya|acces date= 6 Agustus 2020}}</ref> Bangsa Indo-Arya ini ditengarai menyerang masyarakat Lembah Sungai Indus karena di sekitar bekas kota ditemukan sisa kerangka yang seolah-olah menunjukkan bukti kuat adanya penyerbuan.<ref name="Welianto">{{Cite news|title=Peninggalan dan Runtuhnya Peradaban India Kuno|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2020/05/29/141500269/peninggalan-dan-runtuhnya-peradaban-india-kuno|work=[[Kompas.com]]|language=id|access-date=2020-08-30|editor-last=Welianto|editor-first=Ari|first=Ari|last=Welianto}}</ref> Dugaan lainnya dari keruntuhan peradaban ini adalah disebabkan oleh banjir karena kota ini tampaknya begitu padat penduduk dan banjir telah terjadi berulang kali,<ref name="Welianto"/> namun sayangnya bukti ini dirasa kurang kuat karena tidak seluruh kota hancur oleh banjir.<ref name=":2" /> Dugaan lainnya adalah karena perkembangan sosial budaya dari pertanian ke bidang lainnya sehingga kota ini kemudian ditinggalkan.<ref name=":2" />
== Lihat pula ==
* [[Daftar lokasi Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus]]
* [[Daftar penemuan Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus]]
* [[Mohenjo-daro]]
* [[:en:Meluhha|Meluhha]]
* [[Harappa]]
* [[:En:Chanhudaro|Chanhudaro]]
* [[Sindh]]
== Referensi ==
{{reflist|2|refs=
<ref name="indusmilleniumold">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/asia-pacific/india/121116/indus-civilization-2000-years-old-archaeologists|title=Archeologists confirm Indian civilization is 2000 years older than previously believed, Jason Overdorf, Globalpost, 28 November 2012}}</ref>
<ref name="milleniumold">{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/newdelhi/indus-valley-2-000-years-older-than-thought/article1-954601.aspx|title=Indus Valley 2,000 years older than thought|access-date=2018-06-13|archive-date=2015-09-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909090345/http://www.hindustantimes.com/newdelhi/indus-valley-2-000-years-older-than-thought/article1-954601.aspx|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
}}
== Bibliografi ==
{{Refbegin|40em}}
<!-- A -->
* {{cite book|last=[[Bridget Allchin|Allchin, Bridget]]|year=1997|title=Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia|location=New York|publisher=Viking|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=[[F. Raymond Allchin|Allchin, Raymond]] (ed.)|year=1995|title=The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States|location=New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Aronovsky|first=Ilona|author2=Gopinath, Sujata|year=2005|title=The Indus Valley|url=https://archive.org/details/indusvalley0000aron_t8d4|location=Chicago|publisher=Heinemann|ref=harv}}
<!-- B -->
* {{cite book|last=Basham|first=A. L.|title=The Wonder That Was India|publisher=Sidgwick & Jackson|location=London|year=1967|pages=11–14|ref=harv}}
<!-- C -->
* {{Citation | last1 =Cavalli-Sforza | first1 =Luigi Luca | last2 =Menozzi | first2 =Paolo | last3 =Piazza | first3 =Alberto | year =1994 | title =The History and Geography of Human Genes | publisher =Princeton University Press}}
* {{cite book|first=D. K.|last=Chakrabarti|year=2004|title=Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries|url=https://archive.org/details/induscivilizatio0000unse|publisher=Marg Publications|location=Mumbai|isbn=81-85026-63-7|ref=harv}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Coningham | first1 =Robin |author1link=Robin Coningham | last2 =Young | first2 =Ruth | year =2015 | title =The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE | publisher =Cambridge University Press}}
<!-- D -->
* {{cite book|last=Dani|first=Ahmad Hassan|authorlink=Ahmad Hasan Dani|year=1984|title=Short History of Pakistan (Book 1)|publisher=University of Karachi|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Dani|first=Ahmad Hassan|authorlink=Ahmad Hasan Dani|author2=Mohen, J-P. (eds.)|year=1996|title=History of Humanity, Volume III, From the Third Millennium to the Seventh Century BC|location=New York/Paris|publisher=Routledge/UNESCO|isbn=0-415-09306-6|ref=harv}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Derenko | first1 =Miroslava | year =2013 | title =Complete Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in Iranians | journal =PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=e80673 | doi =10.1371/journal.pone.0080673 | pmid=24244704 | pmc=3828245}}
* {{Citation |last=Dikshit |first=K.N. |year=2013 |title=Origin of Early Harappan Cultures in the Sarasvati Valley: Recent Archaeological Evidence and Radiometric Dates |journal=Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology |issue=9 |url=http://server2.docfoc.com/uploads/Z2015/11/21/vESLakMBYz/45a03572f94e7a873d7c350293cca188.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118032736/http://server2.docfoc.com/uploads/Z2015/11/21/vESLakMBYz/45a03572f94e7a873d7c350293cca188.pdf |archivedate=18 January 2017 |df= }}
<!-- G -->
* {{Citation | last1 =Gallego Romero | first1 =Irene | year =2011 | title =Herders of Indian and European Cattle Share their Predominant Allele for Lactase Persistence | journal =Mol. Biol. Evol. | doi =10.1093/molbev/msr190 | display-authors =etal | pmid=21836184 | volume=29 | pages=249–60}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Gangal | first1 =Kavita | last2 =Sarson | first2 =Graeme R. | last3 =Shukurov | first3 =Anvar | year =2014 | title =The Near-Eastern roots of the Neolithic in South Asia | journal =PLOS ONE | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0095714 | pmid=24806472 | volume=9 | pmc=4012948 | pages=e95714}}
* {{cite book|first=S. P.|last=Gupta|authorlink=S. P. Gupta|year=1996|title=The Indus-Saraswati Civilization: Origins, Problems and Issues|isbn=81-85268-46-0|publisher=Pratibha Prakashan|location=Delhi|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|first=S. P. (ed.)|last=Gupta|authorlink=S. P. Gupta|year=1995|title=The lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilisation|publisher=Kusumanjali Prakashan|location=Jodhpur|ref=harv}}
<!-- H -->
* {{Citation | last =Habib | first =Irfan | year =2002 | title =The Making of History: Essays Presented to Irfan Habib | publisher =Anthem Press}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Heggarty | first1 =Paul | last2 =Renfrew | first2 =Collin | year =2014 | chapter =South and Island Southeast Asia; Languages | editor-last1 =Renfrew | editor-first1 =Collin | editor-last2 =Bahn | editor-first2 =Paul | title =The Cambridge World Prehistory | publisher =Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Hiltebeitel|first=Alf|authorlink=Alf Hiltebeitel|editor=Adluri, Vishwa|editor2=Bagchee, Joydeep|title=When the Goddess was a Woman: Mahabharata Ethnographies – Essays by Alf Hiltebeitel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZupXwid01CoC|year=2011|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-19380-2|chapter=The Indus Valley "Proto-Śiva", Re-examined through Reflections on the Goddess, the Buffalo, and the Symbolism of vāhanas}}
<!-- K -->
* {{cite journal | last =Kathiroli | year=2004|title=Recent Marine Archaeological Finds in Khambhat, Gujarat|journal=Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology|issue=1|pages=141–149|ref=harv|display-authors=etal}}
* {{cite book | authorlink=Jonathan Mark Kenoyer|last=Kenoyer|first=Jonathan Mark|year=1998|title=Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation| url=https://archive.org/details/ancientcitiesofi0000keno|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-577940-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal | authorlink=Jonathan Mark Kenoyer|last=Kenoyer|first=Jonathan Mark|title=The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India|journal=Journal of World Prehistory|year=1991|volume=5|pages=1–64|doi=10.1007/BF00978474|ref=harv|issue=4}}
* {{cite book | authorlink=Jonathan Mark Kenoyer|last=Kenoyer|first=Jonathan Mark|author2=Heuston, Kimberly|year=2005|title=The Ancient South Asian World| url=https://archive.org/details/ancientsouthasia0000keno|location=Oxford/New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-517422-4|ref=harv}}
* {{Citation | last=Kivisild | year=1999 | title=Deep common ancestry of Indian and western-Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages | journal=Curr. Biol. | volume=9 | pages=1331–1334 | url=http://jorde-lab.genetics.utah.edu/elibrary/Kivisild_1999.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051030014804/http://jorde-lab.genetics.utah.edu/elibrary/Kivisild_1999.pdf | dead-url=yes | archive-date=2005-10-30 | display-authors=etal | doi=10.1016/s0960-9822(00)80057-3 | pmid=10574762 }}
* {{Citation | last =Kumar | first =Dhavendra | year =2004 | title =Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent | publisher =Springer | accessdate =2008-11-25 | isbn =1-4020-1215-2 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=bpl0LXKj13QC }}
<!-- L -->
* {{cite book|first=B. B.|last=Lal|authorlink=B. B. Lal|year=1998|title=India 1947–1997: New Light on the Indus Civilization|isbn=81-7305-129-1|publisher=Aryan Books International|location=New Delhi|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|first=B. B.|last=Lal|authorlink=B. B. Lal|year=1997|title=The Earliest Civilisation of South Asia (Rise, Maturity and Decline)|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|first=B. B.|last=Lal|authorlink=B. B. Lal|year=2002|title=The Sarasvati flows on|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |display-authors=etal |year=2016 |title=Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East |journal=Nature |volume=536 |issue=7617 |pages=419–424 |biorxiv=059311 |doi=10.1038/nature19310 | ref={{sfnref|Lazaridis et al.|2016}} |bibcode=2016Natur.536..419L|pmc=5003663 |pmid=27459054}}
<!-- M -->
* {{Citation | last =Mani | first =B.R. | year =2008 | title =Kashmir Neolithic and Early Harappan : A Linkage | journal =Pragdhara | volume =18 | pages =229–247 | url =http://archaeology.up.nic.in/doc/kneh_brm.pdf | accessdate =2018-06-13 | archive-date =2017-01-18 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20170118050909/http://archaeology.up.nic.in/doc/kneh_brm.pdf | dead-url =yes }}
* {{cite book|last=Marshall|first=John|authorlink=John Marshall (archaeologist)|title=Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tpc7FjVk0BMC|year=1931|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1179-5|ref=harv}}
* {{Citation | last =Manuel | first =Mark | year =2010 | chapter =Chronology and Culture-History in the Indus Valley | editor-last1 =Gunawardhana | editor-first1 =P. | editor-last2 =Adikari | editor-first2 =G. | editor-last3 =Coningham Battaramulla | editor-first3 =R.A.E. | title =Sirinimal Lakdusinghe Felicitation Volume | publisher =Neptune | url =https://www.academia.edu/243477/Chronology_and_Culture-History_in_the_Indus_Valley }}
* {{Citation |last1=Mascarenhas |first1=Desmond D. |last2=Raina |first2=Anupuma |last3=Aston |first3=Christopher E. |last4 =Sanghera |first4=Dharambir K. | year=2015 |title=Genetic and Cultural Reconstruction of the Migration of an Ancient Lineage |journal =BioMed Research International |volume=2015 |doi=10.1155/2015/651415 |pages=1–16}}
* {{cite book|last=Masson|first=Charles|year=1842|title=Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Panjab; including a residence in those countries from 1826 to 1838|location=London|publisher=Richard Bentley|chapterurl=http://www.harappa.com/har/masson310.html|chapter=Chapter 2: Haripah|page=472|ref=harv|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930184715/http://www.harappa.com/har/masson310.html|archivedate=30 September 2007|df=dmy-all}}
* {{cite book|last=McIntosh|first=Jane|title=A Peaceful Realm: The Rise And Fall of the Indus Civilization|location=Boulder|publisher=Westview Press|year=2001|isbn=0-8133-3532-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=McIntosh|first=Jane|title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=FA275|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-907-2|chapter=Religion and ideology|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite journal | last1 =Mirabal | first1 =Sheyla | year =2009 | title =Y-Chromosome distribution within the geo-linguistic landscape of northwestern Russia | journal =European Journal of Human Genetics | pmid =19259129 | volume =17 | issue =10 | pmc =2986641 | pages =1260–1273 | doi=10.1038/ejhg.2009.6 | last2 =Regueiro | first2=M |last3=Cadenas |first3=AM |last4=Cavalli-Sforza | first4 =LL | last5 =Underhill | first5 =PA | last6 =Verbenko | first6 =DA | last7 =Limborska | first7 =SA | last8 =Herrera | first8 =RJ | display-authors =etal | ref= {{harvid|Mirabal|2009}} }}
* {{cite book|authorlink=Mohammed Rafique Mughal|last=Mughal|first=Mohammad Rafique|year=1997|title=Ancient Cholistan, Archaeology and Architecture|publisher=Ferozesons|isbn=969-0-01350-5|ref=harv}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Mukherjee | first1 =Namita | ref ={{harvid|Mukherjee|2001}} | last2 =Nebel | first2 =Almut | last3 =Oppenheim | first3 =Ariella | last4 =Majumder | first4 =Partha P. | year =2001 | title =High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India | journal =Journal of Genetics | publisher =Springer India | volume =80 | issue =3 | doi =10.1007/BF02717908 | accessdate =2008-11-25 | url =http://www.springerlink.com/content/qw238444x1q3128h/fulltext.pdf | format =PDF | pmid =11988631 | pages =125–35 }}{{Pranala mati|date=Maret 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{Citation | last =Mukherjee | first =Ashoke | year =2001b | title =Rigvedic Sarasvati: Myth and Reality | journal =Breakthrough, Vol.9, No.1, January 2001}}
<!-- N -->
* {{Citation | last1 =Narasimhan | first1 =Vagheesh M. | last2 =Anthony | first2 =David | last3 =Mallory | first3 =James | last4 =Reich | first4 =David | year =2018 | title =The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia | biorxiv =292581 |ref={{sfnref|Narasimhan et al.|2018}}}}
* {{cite book|first=Nayanjot (ed.)|last=Lahiri|year=2000|title=The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilisation|isbn=81-7530-034-5|publisher=Permanent Black|location=Delhi|ref=harv}}
<!-- P -->
* {{Citation | last1 =Palanichamy | first1 =Malliya Gounder | year =2015 | title =West Eurasian mtDNA lineages in India: an insight into the spread of the Dravidian language and the origins of the caste system | journal =Human Genetics |volume=134 |issue=6 |pages=637–647 |doi=10.1007/s00439-015-1547-4 | pmid=25832481}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Pamjav | first1 =Horolma | first2 =Tibor| last2 =Fehér | first3 =Endre| last3 =Németh | first4 =Zsolt | last4 =Pádár | year =2012 | title =Brief communication: new Y-chromosome binary markers improve phylogenetic resolution within haplogroup R1a1 | journal =American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume =149 | issue =4 | pages =611–615 | doi =10.1002/ajpa.22167 | pmid =23115110}}
* <span class="citation web" id="Reference-Parpola-2005">{{cite web |authorlink=Asko Parpola |last=Parpola |first=Asko |url=http://www.harappa.com/script/indusscript.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060306111112/http://www.harappa.com/script/indusscript.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=6 March 2006 |title=Study of the Indus Script |date=19 May 2005 |ref=harv |df=dmy-all }} (50th ICES Tokyo Session)</span><!-- This element is used linked to from the inline references, please don't delete -->
* {{Citation | last =Parpola | first =Asko | year =2015 | title =The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilisation | publisher =Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book | author=Pittman, Holly | title=''Art of the Bronze Age: southeastern Iran, western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1984 | isbn=978-0-87099-365-7 | url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/33948 }}
* {{cite book|last=Possehl|first=Gregory L.|authorlink=Gregory Possehl|title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154|date=11 November 2002|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0-7591-1642-9|ref=harv}}
* {{Citation | last =Poznik | year =2016 | title =Punctuated bursts in human male demography inferred from 1,244 worldwide Y-chromosome sequences | journal =Nature Genetics |doi =10.1038/ng.3559 | volume=48 | pages=593–599 | pmid=27111036 | pmc=4884158}}
<!-- S -->
* {{Citation | last1 =Sarkar | first1 =Anindya | year =2016 | title =Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization | journal =Scientific Reports | url =http://www.nature.com/articles/srep26555 | doi =10.1038/srep26555 }}
* {{Citation | last1 =Semino | first1 =O | last2 =Passarino G | first2 =Oefner PJ | year =2000 | title =The genetic legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans: A Y chromosome perspective | journal =Science |volume=290 |pages=1155–1159 | doi=10.1126/science.290.5494.1155 | pmid=11073453}}
* {{Cite journal |ref=harv|last1=Sengupta|year=2005|first1=S|last2=Zhivotovsky|first2=LA|last3=King|first3=R|last4=Mehdi|first4=SQ|last5=Edmonds|first5=CA|last6=Chow|first6=CE|last7=Lin|first7=AA|last8=Mitra|first8=M|last9=Sil|first9=SK|last10=Ramesh|first10=A.|last11=Usha Rani|first11=M.V.|last12=Thakur|first12=Chitra M.|last13=Cavalli-Sforza|first13=L. Luca|last14=Majumder|first14=Partha P.|last15=Underhill|first15=Peter A.|title=Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists|periodical=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=78|issue=2|pages=202–21|pmid=16400607|pmc=1380230|doi=10.1086/499411|display-authors=8}}.
* {{cite book|first=Shikaripura Ranganatha|last=Rao|authorlink=Shikaripura Ranganatha Rao|year=1991|title=Dawn and Devolution of the Indus Civilisation|isbn=81-85179-74-3|publisher=Aditya Prakashan|location=New Delhi|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Shaffer|first=Jim G.|authorlink=Jim G. Shaffer|chapter=Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology|title=Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia|editor=George Erdosy (ed.)|year=1995|isbn=3-11-014447-6|publisher=de Gruyter|location=Berlin u.a.|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Shaffer|first=Jim G.|authorlink=Jim G. Shaffer|chapter=Migration, Philology and South Asian Archaeology|title=Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia.|editors=Bronkhorst and Deshpande (eds.)|year=1999|isbn=1-888789-04-2|publisher=Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies|location=Cambridge|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Shaffer|first=Jim G.|authorlink=Jim G. Shaffer|year=1992|chapter=The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age|title=Chronologies in Old World Archaeology|edition=Second|editor=R. W. Ehrich (ed.)|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|ref=harv}}
* {{Citation | last =Singh | first =Sakshi | year =2016 | title =Dissecting the influence of Neolithic demic diffusion on Indian Y-chromosome pool through J2-M172 haplogroup | journal =Scientific Reports | doi =10.1038/srep19157 | pmid=26754573 | pmc=4709632 | volume=6 | pages=19157}}
* {{cite journal|last=Srinivasan|first=Doris|title=The So-Called Proto-śiva Seal from Mohenjo-Daro: An Iconological Assessment|journal=Archives of Asian Art|year=1975 |volume=29|pages=47–58|authorlink=Doris Meth Srinivasan|jstor=20062578|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Srinivasan|first=Doris Meth|title=Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art|year=1997|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004107588|authorlink=Doris Meth Srinivasan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC&|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal|last=Sullivan|first=Herbert P.|title=A Re-Examination of the Religion of the Indus Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-of-religions_summer-1964_4_1/page/115|journal=History of Religions|year=1964|volume=4|issue=1|pages=115–125|jstor=1061875|doi=10.1086/462498|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|authorlink=Romila Thapar|title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=FA85|year=2004|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24225-8|ref=harv}}
<!-- U -->
* {{Cite journal|ref={{harvid|Underhill|2009}}|last1=Underhill|first1=Peter A|last2=Myres|year=2009|first2=Natalie M|last3=Rootsi|first3=Siiri|last4=Metspalu|first4=Mait|last5=Zhivotovsky|first5=Lev A|last6=King|issue=4|first6=Roy J|last7=Lin|first7=Alice A|last8=Chow|first8=Cheryl-Emiliane T|last9=Semino|first9=Ornella|last10=Battaglia|first10=Vincenza|last11=Kutuev|first11=Ildus|last12=Järve|first12=Mari|last13=Chaubey|first13=Gyaneshwer|last14=Ayub|first14=Qasim|last15=Mohyuddin|first15=Aisha|last16=Mehdi|first16=S Qasim|last17=Sengupta|first17=Sanghamitra|last18=Rogaev|first18=Evgeny I|last19=Khusnutdinova|first19=Elza K|last20=Pshenichnov|first20=Andrey|last21=Balanovsky|first21=Oleg|last22=Balanovska|first22=Elena|last23=Jeran|first23=Nina|last24=Augustin|first24=Dubravka Havas|last25=Baldovic|first25=Marian|last26=Herrera|first26=Rene J|last27=Thangaraj|first27=Kumarasamy|last28=Singh|first28=Vijay|last29=Singh|first29=Lalji|last30=Majumder|first30=Partha|title=Separating the post-Glacial coancestry of European and Asian Y chromosomes within haplogroup R1a|volume=18|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|doi=10.1038/ejhg.2009.194|pmid=19888303|pmc=2987245|pages=479–84|display-authors=8}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Underhill | first1 =Peter A. | year =2014 | title =The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a | journal =[[European Journal of Human Genetics]] | volume =23 | issue =1 | accessdate =15 June 2016 | pages =124–131 | issn =1018-4813 | doi =10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 | url =http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v23/n1/pdf/ejhg201450a.pdf | pmid =24667786 | pmc =4266736 }}
* {{Citation | last =Underhill | first =Peter A. | display-authors =etal | year =2015 | title =The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a | journal =European Journal of Human Genetics | volume =23 | pages =124–131 | url =http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v23/n1/pdf/ejhg201450a.pdf | doi =10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 | pmid =24667786 | pmc =4266736 }}
<!-- W -->
* {{Citation | last =Wells | first =R.S. | year =2001 | title =The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity | journal =Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=98 |issue=18 |pages=10244–10249 | doi=10.1073/pnas.171305098| bibcode =2001PNAS...9810244W | pmid=11526236 | pmc=56946}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Willey| last2 =Phillips | year=1958 | title =Method and Theory in American Archaeology}}
* {{cite journal|journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies|authorlink=Michael Witzel|last=Witzel|first=Michael|title=The Languages of Harappa|date=February 2000|url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/IndusLang.pdf|ref=harv}}
* {{citation|last=Wright|first=Rita P.|authorlink=Rita P. Wright|title=The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ|accessdate=29 September 2013|year=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-57219-4}}
{{Refend}}
== Pustaka tambahan ==
* {{Citation | last1 =Coningham | first1 =Robin | last2 =Young | first2 =Ruth | year =2015 | title =The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE | publisher =Cambridge University Press}}
== Pranala luar ==
{{Wikivoyage|Mohenjo-daro}}
{{Commons category|Indus Valley Civilization}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051125125109/http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/index.html An invitation to the Indus Civilization (Tokyo Metropolitan Museum)]
* [http://www.upenn.edu/researchatpenn/article.php?674&soc Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629091226/http://www.upenn.edu/researchatpenn/article.php?674&soc |date=2011-06-29 }}
* [http://www.harappa.com/ Photos and descriptions of archaeological excavations — 90 page intro to Indus] (Harappa and Indus Valley Civilization at harappa.com)
* [http://www.harappa.com/script/ The Indus Script] (harappa.com)
* http://www.safarmer.com/fsw2.pdf 'Collapse of the Indus-Script Thesis' by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004)
* [http://www.flonnet.com/fl1720/17200040.htm Horseplay in Harappa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050620073752/http://www.flonnet.com/fl1720/17200040.htm |date=2005-06-20 }} article debunking claims of decipherment of the "Indus script"
** [http://micheldanino.voiceofdharma.com/frontline.html A reply to Frontline’s cover story by Michael Danino] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305121336/http://micheldanino.voiceofdharma.com/frontline.html |date=2005-03-05 }}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1272010.stm Prehistoric dentistry evidence found in Indus - BBC News]
* [http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_history/sarasvati/html/artefacts.htm Indus artefacts]
* [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/members/indus.html Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101164930/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/members/indus.html |date=2007-01-01 }}
{{Authority control}}
[[Kategori:Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus| ]]
[[Kategori:Peradaban kuno]]
[[Kategori:Sejarah India]]
[[Kategori:Situs Warisan Dunia UNESCO di Pakistan]]
[[Kategori:Sejarah Pakistan]]
[[Kategori:Situs arkeologi di Pakistan]]
[[Kategori:India Kuno]]
| |||