Manusia: Perbedaan antara revisi
Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan
Punkerstein (bicara | kontrib) |
k →top: migrasi |
||
| (570 revisi antara oleh lebih dari 100 100 pengguna tak ditampilkan) | |||
Baris 1:
{{Speciesbox
| item = Q15978631
| name = Manusia<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Groves | pages = | id = 12100795}}</ref>
| fossil_range = {{rentang fosil|0,35|0}} <small>[[Pleistosen Tengah]] – [[Holosen|Kini]]</small>
| image = Akha cropped hires.JPG <!-- Ini adalah gambar pilihan. Diharap jangan mengubahnya tanpa persetujuan konsensus. -->
| image_caption = Laki-laki (kiri) dan perempuan (kanan) dari [[suku Akha]] di [[Thailand]] bagian [[utara]]
| taxon = Homo sapiens
| authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Subspesies
| subdivision =
* [[punah|{{extinct}}]]''[[Homo sapiens idaltu]]'' <small>[[John Graham White|White]] ''dll.'', 2003</small>
* ''[[Homo sapiens sapiens]]'' (manusia modern)
| range_map = World human population density map.png
| range_map_caption = Peta persebaran populasi ''Homo sapiens''
| synonyms =
{{collapsible list|bullets = true
|title=<small>Sinonim spesies</small><ref name=msw3 />
|''aethiopicus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''americanus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''arabicus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''aurignacensis''<br /><small>Klaatsch & Hauser, 1910</small>
|''australasicus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''cafer''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''capensis''<br /><small>Broom, 1917</small>
|''columbicus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''cro-magnonensis''<br /><small>Gregory, 1921</small>
|''drennani''<br /><small>Kleinschmidt, 1931</small>
|''eurafricanus''<br /><small>(Sergi, 1911)</small>
|''grimaldiensis''<br /><small>Gregory, 1921</small>
|''grimaldii''<br /><small>Lapouge, 1906</small>
|''hottentotus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''hyperboreus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''indicus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''japeticus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''melaninus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''monstrosus''<br /><small>Linnaeus, 1758</small>
|''neptunianus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''palestinus''<br /><small>McCown & Keith, 1932</small>
|''patagonus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''priscus''<br /><small>Lapouge, 1899</small>
|''proto-aethiopicus''<br /><small>Giuffrida-Ruggeri, 1915</small>
|''scythicus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''sinicus''<br /><small>Bory de St. Vincent, 1825</small>
|''spelaeus''<br /><small>Lapouge, 1899</small>
|''troglodytes''<br /><small>Linnaeus, 1758</small>
|''wadjakensis''<br /><small>Dubois, 1921</small>
}}
}}
[[Berkas:Two young girls at Camp Christmas Seals.jpg|jmpl|250px|ka|Dua anak perempuan manusia]]
'''Manusia''' (''Homo sapiens'') adalah [[spesies]] [[primata]] yang jumlahnya paling banyak dan tersebar luas. Mereka adalah jenis [[Hominidae|kera besar]] yang dicirikan oleh gaya berjalan dua kaki dan kemampuan [[Kognisi|kognitif]] yang mumpuni berkat [[otak]] mereka yang besar dan kompleks. Manusia adalah makhluk yang sangat sosial dan cenderung hidup dalam [[struktur sosial]] yang kompleks yang terdiri dari banyak kelompok yang saling bekerja sama dan bersaing, mulai dari keluarga dan jaringan kekerabatan hingga negara politik. Oleh karenanya, interaksi sosial antara manusia telah membentuk berbagai macam nilai, [[norma sosial]], [[bahasa]], dan [[ritual]], yang masing-masing menopang komunitas manusia. Keinginan untuk memahami dan mempengaruhi [[fenomena]] telah memotivasi manusia untuk mengembangkan [[Ilmu|ilmu pengetahuan]], [[teknologi]], [[filsafat]], [[hukum]], [[mitologi]], [[agama]], dan bidang studi lainnya.
Meskipun beberapa ilmuwan memperlakukan istilah manusia sama dengan semua anggota genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'', dalam penggunaan umum, istilah hari ini biasanya merujuk pada ''Homo sapiens'', satu-satunya anggota ''Homo'' yang masih ada. [[Manusia modern anatomis|Manusia modern secara anatomis]] muncul sekitar 300.000 tahun yang lalu di Afrika, berevolusi dari ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]'' atau spesies yang serupa dan bermigrasi keluar dari Afrika, secara bertahap menggantikan atau melakukan kawin silang dengan populasi lokal [[manusia purba]]. Manusia merupakan [[pemburu-pengumpul]] yang hidup berpindah-pindah selama sebagian besar rentang sejarahnya. Manusia mulai menunjukkan perilaku modern sekitar 160.000-60.000 tahun yang lalu. [[Revolusi Neolitikum]], yang dimulai di Asia Barat Daya sekitar 13.000 tahun yang lalu (dan secara terpisah di beberapa tempat lain), melahirkan [[pertanian]] dan [[Pola pemukiman|pemukiman manusia]] yang permanen. Ketika populasi manusia menjadi lebih besar dan lebih padat, bentuk-bentuk pemerintahan berkembang di dalam dan di antara mereka, dan sejumlah [[peradaban]] telah bangkit dan runtuh. Manusia terus berkembang, dengan populasi global mencapai lebih dari 8 miliar hingga tahun 2022.
Faktor [[gen]] dan [[lingkungan]] memengaruhi variasi biologis manusia dalam karakteristik tampilan, fisiologi, kerentanan terhadap penyakit, kemampuan mental, ukuran tubuh, dan rentang hidup. Meskipun manusia bervariasi dalam banyak sifat (seperti pembawaan genetik dan ciri-ciri fisik), setiap dua orang manusia setidaknya 99% mirip secara genetik. Manusia secara [[Dimorfisme seksual|seksual bersifat dimorfik]]: secara umum, laki-laki memiliki tubuh yang lebih kuat dan perempuan memiliki persentase [[lemak tubuh]] yang lebih tinggi. Pada masa [[pubertas]], manusia mengembangkan [[Ciri kelamin sekunder|karakteristik seks sekunder]]. Wanita dapat [[Kehamilan|hamil]], biasanya antara masa pubertas, sekitar 12 tahun, hingga masa [[menopause]], sekitar usia 50 [[tahun]].
Manusia tergolong omnivora, mereka mampu mengonsumsi berbagai macam jenis tumbuhan dan binatang, dan telah [[Pengendalian api oleh manusia purba|menggunakan api]] dan bentuk panas lainnya untuk menyiapkan dan memasak makanan sejak zaman ''[[Homo erectus|H. erectus]]''. Manusia dapat bertahan hidup hingga delapan minggu tanpa makanan dan tiga atau empat hari tanpa air. Manusia pada umumnya aktif di siang hari, tidur rata-rata tujuh hingga sembilan jam per hari. Melahirkan bagi mereka adalah proses yang membahayakan, dengan risiko komplikasi dan kematian yang tinggi. Seringkali, baik ibu maupun ayah merawat anak-anak mereka, yang tidak berdaya saat dilahirkan, karena manusia adalah [[Altricial|spesies altricial]].
Manusia memiliki [[korteks prefrontal]] yang berukuran besar dan berkembang, bagian otak ini merupakan yang bertanggung jawab atas kemampuan kognisi yang lebih tinggi. Manusia memiliki kecerdasan yang tinggi, mempunyai ingatan episodik, memiliki ekspresi wajah yang fleksibel, kesadaran diri, dan [[teori pikiran]]. Pikiran manusia mampu melakukan introspeksi, pemikiran pribadi, imajinasi, tekad, dan membentuk pandangan tentang [[Keberadaan|eksistensi]]. Hal ini memungkinkan kemajuan teknologi yang luar biasa dan pengembangan alat yang rumit melalui penalaran yang kompleks dan penerusan pengetahuan kepada generasi berikutnya. Bahasa, seni, dan perdagangan adalah karakteristik mendasar manusia. Rute perdagangan jarak jauh mungkin telah menyebabkan ledakan budaya dan distribusi sumber daya yang memberi manusia keunggulan dibandingkan spesies lain yang serupa.
== Evolusi ==
{{Main|Evolusi manusia}}
Manusia adalah kera ([[Hominoidea|superfamili Hominoidea]]).<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Tuttle RH|date=4 October 2018|title=International Encyclopedia of Biological Anthropology|place=[[Hoboken]], [[New Jersey]], [[United States]]|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]]|isbn=978-1-118-58442-2|veditors=Trevathan W, Cartmill M, Dufour D, Larsen C|pages=1–2|language=en|chapter=Hominoidea: conceptual history|doi=10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0246|author-link=Russell Tuttle|access-date=26 May 2021|chapter-url=https://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0246|s2cid=240125199}}</ref> Garis keturunan kera yang akhirnya memunculkan manusia pertama kali berpisah dari [[Ungka|owa]] (famili ''Hylobatidae'') dan [[Orang utan|orangutan]] (genus Pongo), kemudian [[gorila]] (genus Gorilla), dan terakhir [[simpanse]] dan [[bonobo]] (genus Pan). Perpisahan terakhir, antara garis keturunan manusia dan simpanse-bonobo, terjadi sekitar 8-4 juta tahun yang lalu, pada akhir zaman [[Miosen]].<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=March 1990|title=Primate evolution at the DNA level and a classification of hominoids|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-molecular-evolution_1990-03_30_3/page/260|journal=[[Journal of Molecular Evolution]]|volume=30|issue=3|pages=260–6|bibcode=1990JMolE..30..260G|doi=10.1007/BF02099995|pmid=2109087|vauthors=Goodman M, Tagle DA, Fitch DH, Bailey W, Czelusniak J, Koop BF, Benson P, Slightom JL|s2cid=2112935|issn = 0022-2844 }}</ref><ref name="Ruvolo1997">{{cite journal|date=March 1997|title=Molecular phylogeny of the hominoids: inferences from multiple independent DNA sequence data sets|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_1997-03_14_3/page/248|journal=[[Molecular Biology and Evolution]]|volume=14|issue=3|pages=248–65|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025761|pmid=9066793|vauthors=Ruvolo M|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=2012|title=Our True Dawn|journal=[[New Scientist]]|volume=216|issue=2892|pages=34–37|bibcode=2012NewSc.216...34B|doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(12)63018-8|vauthors=Brahic C}}</ref> Selama perpisahan ini, [[Kromosom 2 (manusia)|kromosom 2]] terbentuk dari penggabungan dua kromosom lainnya, sehingga manusia hanya memiliki 23 pasang kromosom, dibandingkan dengan 24 pasang kromosom untuk kera lainnya.<ref name="fusion">{{cite web|title=Human Chromosome 2 is a fusion of two ancestral chromosomes|url=https://www.evolutionpages.com/chromosome_2.htm|work=Evolution pages|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809040210/https://www.evolutionpages.com/chromosome_2.htm|archive-date=9 August 2011|access-date=18 May 2006|vauthors=MacAndrew A}}</ref> Setelah perpisahan dengan simpanse dan bonobo, hominid terdiversifikasi menjadi banyak spesies dan setidaknya dua genera yang berbeda. Semua garis keturunan genus ''[[Homo]]'' telah punah kecuali Homo sapiens.<ref>{{Cite web|last=McNulty|first=Kieran P.|year=2016|title=Hominin Taxonomy and Phylogeny: What's In A Name?|url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/hominin-taxonomy-and-phylogeny-what-s-in-142102877/|website=Nature Education Knowledge|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110013134/https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/hominin-taxonomy-and-phylogeny-what-s-in-142102877/|archive-date=10 January 2016|access-date=11 June 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{clade|{{clade
|1=Hylobatidae ([[owa]])
|label2=[[Hominidae]] (hominid, kera besar)
|2={{clade|label1=[[Ponginae]] |1={{clade
|label1=Pongo ([[orang utan]])
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Pongo abelii]]''
|label2=
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Pongo tapanuliensis]]''
|2=''[[Pongo pygmaeus]]''
}}
}} }}
|label2=[[Homininae]]
|2={{clade|label1=[[Gorillini]] |1={{clade
|label1=Gorilla ([[gorila]])
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Gorilla gorilla]]''
|2=''[[Gorilla beringei]]''
}} }}
|label2=[[Hominini]] (hominin)
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Pan (genus)|Panina]]
|1={{clade|label1=Pan ([[simpanse]])|1={{clade
|1=''[[Simpanse|Pan troglodytes]]''
|2=''[[Pan paniscus]]''
}} }}
|2={{clade|label1=[[Australopithecine|Hominina]]|1='''''Homo sapiens''''' (manusia)}}
}}
}}
}}
}}|style1=font-size:80%; line-height:80%|label1=[[Hominoidea]] (hominoid, kera besar)}}
[[Berkas:Lucy_Skeleton.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Rekonstruksi terhadap [[Lucy (Australopithecus)|Lucy]]'','' kerangka ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' pertama yang ditemukan.]]
Genus ''Homo'' berevolusi dari ''[[Australopithecus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|date=September 2010|title=The Evolutionary History of the Australopiths|url=https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-010-0249-6|journal=Evolution: Education and Outreach|language=en|volume=3|issue=3|pages=341–352|doi=10.1007/s12052-010-0249-6|issn=1936-6434|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531204050/https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-010-0249-6|archive-date=31 May 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Strait DS|s2cid=31979188|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=September 2010|title=Origin of the Genus Homo|url=https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-010-0247-8|journal=Evolution: Education and Outreach|language=en|volume=3|issue=3|pages=353–366|doi=10.1007/s12052-010-0247-8|issn=1936-6434|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523050858/https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-010-0247-8|archive-date=23 May 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Dunsworth HM|s2cid=43116946|url-status=live}}</ref> Meskipun [[Fosil|fosil-fosil]] dari masa transisi ini langka, anggota ''Homo'' yang paling awal memiliki beberapa ciri-ciri utama yang sama dengan ''Australopithecus''.<ref>{{cite journal|date=July 2016|title=From Australopithecus to Homo: the transition that wasn't|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=371|issue=1698|page=20150248|doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0248|pmc=4920303|pmid=27298460|vauthors=Kimbel WH, Villmoare B|s2cid=20267830}}</ref><ref name="Villmoare2015">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=March 2015|title=Paleoanthropology. Early Homo at 2.8 Ma from Ledi-Geraru, Afar, Ethiopia|journal=[[Science (jurnal)|Science]]|volume=347|issue=6228|pages=1352–1355|bibcode=2015Sci...347.1352V|doi=10.1126/science.aaa1343|pmid=25739410|vauthors=Villmoare B, Kimbel WH, Seyoum C, Campisano CJ, DiMaggio EN, Rowan J, Braun DR, Arrowsmith JR, Reed KE|doi-access=free}}</ref> Catatan paling awal dari ''Homo'' adalah spesimen berusia 2,8 juta tahun, LD 350-1 dari Ethiopia, dan spesies yang paling awal adalah ''[[Homo habilis]]'' dan ''[[Homo rudolfensis]]'' yang berevolusi 2,3 juta tahun yang lalu.<ref name="Villmoare2015" /> ''[[Homo erectus|H. erectus]]'' (varian Afrika kadang-kadang disebut ''[[Homo ergaster|H. ergaster]]'') berevolusi 2 juta tahun yang lalu dan merupakan spesies [[manusia purba]] pertama yang meninggalkan Afrika dan menyebar ke seluruh Eurasia.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=July 2018|title=Hominin occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau since about 2.1 million years ago|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=559|issue=7715|pages=608–612|bibcode=2018Natur.559..608Z|doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0299-4|pmid=29995848|vauthors=Zhu Z, Dennell R, Huang W, Wu Y, Qiu S, Yang S, Rao Z, Hou Y, Xie J, Han J, Ouyang T|s2cid=49670311}}</ref> ''H. erectus'' juga merupakan yang pertama kali mengembangkan bentuk tubuh yang khas sebagaimana manusia. ''Homo sapiens'' muncul di Afrika sekitar 300.000 tahun yang lalu berevolusi dari spesies yang umumnya dikenali sebagai ''[[Homo heidelbergensis|H. heidelbergensis]]'' atau ''[[Homo rhodesiensis|H. rhodesiensis]]'', yakni keturunan ''H. erectus'' yang masih ada di Afrika.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=June 2017|title=New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan-African origin of Homo sapiens|url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/62267/1/Submission_288356_1_art_file_2637492_j96j1b.pdf|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=546|issue=7657|pages=289–292|bibcode=2017Natur.546..289H|doi=10.1038/nature22336|pmid=28593953|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108234003/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/62267/1/Submission_288356_1_art_file_2637492_j96j1b.pdf|archive-date=8 January 2020|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Hublin JJ, Ben-Ncer A, Bailey SE, Freidline SE, Neubauer S, Skinner MM, Bergmann I, Le Cabec A, Benazzi S, Harvati K, Gunz P|url-status=live}}</ref> ''H. sapiens'' bermigrasi keluar dari benua tersebut, secara bertahap menggantikan atau kawin silang dengan populasi manusia purba setempat.<ref>{{cite journal|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=13 May 2005|title=Out of Africa Revisited|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|type=This Week in ''Science''|volume=308|issue=5724|page=921|doi=10.1126/science.308.5724.921g|issn=0036-8075|s2cid=220100436}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author-link=Chris Stringer|date=June 2003|title=Human evolution: Out of Ethiopia|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=423|issue=6941|pages=692–3, 695|bibcode=2003Natur.423..692S|doi=10.1038/423692a|pmid=12802315|vauthors=Stringer C|s2cid=26693109}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author-link=Donald Johanson|date=May 2001|title=Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of Africa?|url=https://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html|website=[[actionbioscience]]|publisher=[[American Institute of Biological Sciences]]|location=Washington, DC|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617010349/http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html|archive-date=17 June 2021|access-date=23 November 2009|vauthors=Johanson D|url-status=dead}}</ref> Manusia mulai menunjukkan [[Modernitas perilaku|perilaku modern]] sekitar 160.000-70.000 tahun yang lalu,<ref name="Marean et al 2007">{{cite journal|last1=Marean|first1=Curtis|display-authors=etal|date=2007|title=Early human use of marine resources and pigment in South Africa during the Middle Pleistocene|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/15550/files/PAL_E2962.pdf|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=449|issue=7164|pages=905–908|bibcode=2007Natur.449..905M|doi=10.1038/nature06204|pmid=17943129|s2cid=4387442}}</ref> dan mungkin lebih awal.<ref name="Brooks">{{Cite journal|year=2018|title=Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=360|issue=6384|pages=90–94|bibcode=2018Sci...360...90B|doi=10.1126/science.aao2646|pmid=29545508|vauthors=Brooks AS, Yellen JE, Potts R, Behrensmeyer AK, Deino AL, Leslie DE, Ambrose SH, Ferguson JR, d'Errico F, Zipkin AM, Whittaker S, Post J, Veatch EG, Foecke K, Clark JB|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[Asal-usul manusia modern dari Afrika|Migrasi "keluar dari Afrika"]] terjadi setidaknya dalam dua gelombang, gelombang pertama sekitar 130.000 hingga 100.000 tahun yang lalu, gelombang kedua (Penyebaran Selatan) sekitar 70.000 hingga 50.000 tahun yang lalu.<ref name="Posth">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=March 2016|title=Pleistocene Mitochondrial Genomes Suggest a Single Major Dispersal of Non-Africans and a Late Glacial Population Turnover in Europe|journal=[[Current Biology]]|volume=26|issue=6|pages=827–33|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.037|pmid=26853362|vauthors=Posth C, Renaud G, Mittnik A, Drucker DG, Rougier H, Cupillard C, Valentin F, Thevenet C, Furtwängler A, Wißing C, Francken M, Malina M, Bolus M, Lari M, Gigli E, Capecchi G, Crevecoeur I, Beauval C, Flas D, Germonpré M, van der Plicht J, Cottiaux R, Gély B, Ronchitelli A, Wehrberger K, Grigorescu D, Svoboda J, Semal P, Caramelli D, Bocherens H, Harvati K, Conard NJ, Haak W, Powell A, Krause J|hdl-access=free|s2cid=140098861|hdl=2440/114930}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=April 2015|title=A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture|journal=[[Genome Research]]|volume=25|issue=4|pages=459–66|doi=10.1101/gr.186684.114|pmc=4381518|pmid=25770088|vauthors=Karmin M, Saag L, Vicente M, Wilson Sayres MA, Järve M, Talas UG, Rootsi S, Ilumäe AM, Mägi R, Mitt M, Pagani L, Puurand T, Faltyskova Z, Clemente F, Cardona A, Metspalu E, Sahakyan H, Yunusbayev B, Hudjashov G, DeGiorgio M, Loogväli EL, Eichstaedt C, Eelmets M, Chaubey G, Tambets K, Litvinov S, Mormina M, Xue Y, Ayub Q, Zoraqi G, Korneliussen TS, Akhatova F, Lachance J, Tishkoff S, Momynaliev K, Ricaut FX, Kusuma P, Razafindrazaka H, Pierron D, Cox MP, Sultana GN, Willerslev R, Muller C, Westaway M, Lambert D, Skaro V, Kovačevic L, Turdikulova S, Dalimova D, Khusainova R, Trofimova N, Akhmetova V, Khidiyatova I, Lichman DV, Isakova J, Pocheshkhova E, Sabitov Z, Barashkov NA, Nymadawa P, Mihailov E, Seng JW, Evseeva I, Migliano AB, Abdullah S, Andriadze G, Primorac D, Atramentova L, Utevska O, Yepiskoposyan L, Marjanovic D, Kushniarevich A, Behar DM, Gilissen C, Vissers L, Veltman JA, Balanovska E, Derenko M, Malyarchuk B, Metspalu A, Fedorova S, Eriksson A, Manica A, Mendez FL, Karafet TM, Veeramah KR, Bradman N, Hammer MF, Osipova LP, Balanovsky O, Khusnutdinova EK, Johnsen K, Remm M, Thomas MG, Tyler-Smith C, Underhill PA, Willerslev E, Nielsen R, Metspalu M, Villems R, Kivisild T}}</ref> H. sapiens kemudian menjajah semua benua dan pulau-pulau besar, tiba di [[Eurasia]] 125.000 tahun yang lalu,<ref>{{cite journal|date=January 2011|title=The southern route "out of Africa": evidence for an early expansion of modern humans into Arabia|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/69197/title/Hints_of_earlier_human_exit_from_Africa|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=331|issue=6016|pages=453–6|bibcode=2011Sci...331..453A|doi=10.1126/science.1199113|pmid=21273486|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427201317/https://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/69197/title/Hints_of_earlier_human_exit_from_Africa|archive-date=27 April 2011|access-date=1 May 2011|vauthors=Armitage SJ, Jasim SA, Marks AE, Parker AG, Usik VI, Uerpmann HP|url-status=live|s2cid=20296624}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=27 January 2011|title=Humans 'left Africa much earlier'|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12300228|work=[[BBC News]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809051349/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12300228|archive-date=9 August 2012|vauthors=Rincon P}}</ref> Australia sekitar 65.000 tahun yang lalu,<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=July 2017|title=Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=547|issue=7663|pages=306–310|bibcode=2017Natur.547..306C|doi=10.1038/nature22968|pmid=28726833|vauthors=Clarkson C, Jacobs Z, Marwick B, Fullagar R, Wallis L, Smith M, Roberts RG, Hayes E, Lowe K, Carah X, Florin SA, McNeil J, Cox D, Arnold LJ, Hua Q, Huntley J, Brand HE, Manne T, Fairbairn A, Shulmeister J, Lyle L, Salinas M, Page M, Connell K, Park G, Norman K, Murphy T, Pardoe C|s2cid=205257212|hdl=2440/107043}}</ref> Amerika sekitar 15.000 tahun yang lalu, dan pulau-pulau terpencil seperti [[Hawaii]], [[Pulau Paskah]], [[Madagaskar]], dan [[Selandia Baru]] antara tahun 300 hingga 1280 M.<ref name="Lowe">{{cite web|year=2008|title=Polynesian settlement of New Zealand and the impacts of volcanism on early Maori society: an update|url=https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/10289/2690/1/Lowe%202008%20Polynesian%20settlement%20guidebook.pdf|publisher=[[University of Waikato]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522032853/https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/10289/2690/1/Lowe%202008%20Polynesian%20settlement%20guidebook.pdf|archive-date=22 May 2010|access-date=29 April 2010|vauthors=Lowe DJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=May 2012|title=Human migrations: Eastern odyssey|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=485|issue=7396|pages=24–6|bibcode=2012Natur.485...24A|doi=10.1038/485024a|pmid=22552074|vauthors=Appenzeller T|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Evolusi manusia tidaklah berlangsung secara linier atau bercabang, melainkan melibatkan [[perkawinan silang antara manusia purba dan modern|perkawinan silang antara spesies-spesies terkait]].<ref name="pmid21179161">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=December 2010|title=Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=468|issue=7327|pages=1053–60|bibcode=2010Natur.468.1053R|doi=10.1038/nature09710|pmc=4306417|pmid=21179161|vauthors=Reich D, Green RE, Kircher M, Krause J, Patterson N, Durand EY, Viola B, Briggs AW, Stenzel U, Johnson PL, Maricic T, Good JM, Marques-Bonet T, Alkan C, Fu Q, Mallick S, Li H, Meyer M, Eichler EE, Stoneking M, Richards M, Talamo S, Shunkov MV, Derevianko AP, Hublin JJ, Kelso J, Slatkin M, Pääbo S|hdl=10230/25596|author-link1=David Reich (geneticist)}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=May 2013|title=Human Hybrids|url=https://www.grochbiology.org/EarlyHominidInterbreeding.pdf|journal=[[Scientific American]]|volume=308|issue=5|pages=66–71|bibcode=2013SciAm.308e..66H|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0513-66|pmid=23627222|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824034550/https://www.grochbiology.org/EarlyHominidInterbreeding.pdf|archive-date=24 August 2018|vauthors=Hammer MF}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=July 2011|title=Mosaic humans, the hybrid species|journal=[[New Scientist]]|volume=211|issue=2823|pages=34–38|bibcode=2011NewSc.211...34Y|doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(11)61839-3|vauthors=Yong E}}</ref> Penelitian genom telah menunjukkan bahwa hibridisasi antara garis keturunan yang berbeda secara substansial adalah hal yang umum dalam evolusi manusia.<ref name="Ackermann 2015">{{cite journal|date=October 2015|title=The Hybrid Origin of "Modern" Humans|journal=[[Evolutionary Biology (journal)|Evolutionary Biology]]|volume=43|issue=1|pages=1–11|doi=10.1007/s11692-015-9348-1|vauthors=Ackermann RR, Mackay A, Arnold ML|s2cid=14329491}}</ref> Bukti [[DNA]] menunjukkan bahwa beberapa gen yang berasal dari [[Neanderthal]] ada di antara semua populasi non-Sahara Afrika, dan Neanderthal serta hominin lain, seperti [[Hominini Denisova|Denisovan]], tampaknya telah menyumbangkan hingga 6% dari [[genom]] mereka kepada manusia non-Sahara Afrika saat ini.<ref name="pmid21179161" /><ref name="pmid20439435">{{cite journal|date=May 2010|title=Neanderthal genomics and the evolution of modern humans|journal=[[Genome Research]]|volume=20|issue=5|pages=547–53|doi=10.1101/gr.076000.108|pmc=2860157|pmid=20439435|vauthors=Noonan JP}}</ref><ref name="10.1126/science.1209202">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=October 2011|title=The shaping of modern human immune systems by multiregional admixture with archaic humans|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=334|issue=6052|pages=89–94|bibcode=2011Sci...334...89A|doi=10.1126/science.1209202|pmc=3677943|pmid=21868630|vauthors=Abi-Rached L, Jobin MJ, Kulkarni S, McWhinnie A, Dalva K, Gragert L, Babrzadeh F, Gharizadeh B, Luo M, Plummer FA, Kimani J, Carrington M, Middleton D, Rajalingam R, Beksac M, Marsh SG, Maiers M, Guethlein LA, Tavoularis S, Little AM, Green RE, Norman PJ, Parham P}}</ref>
Evolusi manusia ditandai dengan sejumlah perubahan [[morfologis]], [[Perkembangan manusia|perkembangan]], [[fisiologis]], dan [[Perilaku manusia|perilaku]] yang telah terjadi sejak perpecahan antara [[Leluhur bersama terakhir simpanse–manusia|nenek moyang terakhir manusia dan simpanse]]. Yang paling signifikan dari adaptasi ini adalah bipedalisme obligat, peningkatan ukuran otak, dan penurunan [[dimorfisme seksual]] (neoteni). Hubungan antara semua perubahan ini masih menjadi bahan diskusi yang terus berlangsung.<ref name="Boyd2003">{{cite book|vauthors=Boyd R, Silk JB|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/howhumansevolved03edboyd|title=How Humans Evolved|location=New York City|publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company|Norton]]|isbn=978-0-393-97854-4|author1-link=Robert Boyd (anthropologist)|author2-link=Joan Silk|url-access=registration}}</ref>
== Sejarah ==
{{Main|Sejarah manusia||}}
[[Berkas:Early_migrations_mercator.svg|jmpl|350x350px|Peta rangkuman penduduk dunia berdasarkan [[Migrasi manusia awal|migrasi awal manusia]] selama [[Paleolitikum Akhir|Paleolitik Akhir]], mengikuti paradigma Penyebaran Selatan]]
Hingga sekitar 12.000 tahun yang lalu, semua manusia hidup sebagai [[pemburu-pengumpul]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Little|first1=Michael A.|last2=Blumler|first2=Mark A.|year=2015|title=Basics in Human Evolution|place=Boston|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-802652-6|editor-last=Muehlenbein|editor-first=Michael P.|pages=323–335|language=en|chapter=Hunter-Gatherers|access-date=30 July 2022|chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128026526000232|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703085714/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128026526000232|archive-date=3 July 2022|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Scarre|first=Chris|year=2018|title=The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies|location=London|publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]]|isbn=978-0-500-29335-5|editor-last=Scarre|editor-first=Chris|edition=4th|pages=174–197|chapter=The world transformed: from foragers and farmers to states and empires|author-link=Chris Scarre}}</ref> [[Revolusi Neolitikum]] (penemuan [[pertanian]]) pertama kali terjadi di [[Asia Barat Daya]] dan menyebar ke sebagian besar [[Dunia Lama]] selama ribuan tahun berikutnya.<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Colledge S, Conolly J, Dobney K, Manning K, Shennan S|date=2013|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/855969933|title=Origins and Spread of Domestic Animals in Southwest Asia and Europe.|location=Walnut Creek|publisher=Left Coast Press|isbn=978-1-61132-324-5|pages=13–17|oclc=855969933|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032846/https://www.worldcat.org/title/origins-and-spread-of-domestic-animals-in-southwest-asia-and-europe/oclc/855969933|archive-date=30 July 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Revolusi ini juga terjadi secara independen di Mesoamerika (sekitar 6.000 tahun yang lalu),<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Scanes CG|date=January 2018|title=Animals and Human Society|isbn=978-0-12-805247-1|veditors=Scanes CG, Toukhsati SR|pages=103–131|chapter=The Neolithic Revolution, Animal Domestication, and Early Forms of Animal Agriculture|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-805247-1.00006-X}}</ref> [[Tiongkok]],<ref name="He2017">{{cite journal|date=7 June 2017|title=Prehistoric evolution of the dualistic structure mixed rice and millet farming in China|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317400332|journal=The Holocene|volume=27|issue=12|pages=1885–1898|bibcode=2017Holoc..27.1885H|doi=10.1177/0959683617708455|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120221221/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317400332_Prehistoric_evolution_of_the_dualistic_structure_mixed_rice_and_millet_farming_in_China|archive-date=20 November 2021|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=He K, Lu H, Zhang J, Wang C, Huan X|s2cid=133660098|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Lu">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=May 2009|title=Earliest domestication of common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in East Asia extended to 10,000 years ago|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=106|issue=18|pages=7367–72|bibcode=2009PNAS..106.7367L|doi=10.1073/pnas.0900158106|pmc=2678631|pmid=19383791|vauthors=Lu H, Zhang J, Liu KB, Wu N, Li Y, Zhou K, Ye M, Zhang T, Zhang H, Yang X, Shen L, Xu D, Li Q|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Papua Nugini]],<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=July 2003|title=Origins of agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the highlands of New Guinea|journal=Science|volume=301|issue=5630|pages=189–93|doi=10.1126/science.1085255|pmid=12817084|vauthors=Denham TP, Haberle SG, Lentfer C, Fullagar R, Field J, Therin M, Porch N, Winsborough B|s2cid=10644185}}</ref> dan wilayah [[Sahel]] dan [[Sabana Sudan|Sabana Barat]] di Afrika.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=May 2019|title=Yam genomics supports West Africa as a major cradle of crop domestication|journal=Science Advances|volume=5|issue=5|pages=eaaw1947|bibcode=2019SciA....5.1947S|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaw1947|pmc=6527260|pmid=31114806|vauthors=Scarcelli N, Cubry P, Akakpo R, Thuillet AC, Obidiegwu J, Baco MN, Otoo E, Sonké B, Dansi A, Djedatin G, Mariac C, Couderc M, Causse S, Alix K, Chaïr H, François O, Vigouroux Y|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=October 2017|title=Evidence for Sorghum Domestication in Fourth Millennium BC Eastern Sudan: Spikelet Morphology from Ceramic Impressions of the Butana Group|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1574602/7/Fuller_693898.pdf|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=58|issue=5|pages=673–683|doi=10.1086/693898|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623152728/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1574602/7/Fuller_693898.pdf|archive-date=23 June 2021|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Winchell F|s2cid=149402650|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=February 2011|title=4500-Year old domesticated pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) from the Tilemsi Valley, Mali: new insights into an alternative cereal domestication pathway|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=38|issue=2|pages=312–322|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2010.09.007|vauthors=Manning K}}</ref> Akses terhadap surplus makanan menyebabkan terbentuknya [[pemukiman manusia]] yang permanen, [[domestikasi]] hewan, dan [[Zaman Tembaga|penggunaan peralatan logam]] untuk pertama kalinya dalam sejarah. Pertanian dan gaya hidup menetap menyebabkan munculnya [[peradaban]] awal.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Noble TF, Strauss B, Osheim D, Neuschel K, Accamp E|date=2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Td4WAAAAQBAJ&q=western%20civilisation%20egypt&pg=PA16|title=Cengage Advantage Books: Western Civilization: Beyond Boundaries|isbn=978-1-285-66153-7|access-date=11 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214010433/https://books.google.com/books?id=Td4WAAAAQBAJ&q=western%20civilisation%20egypt&pg=PA16|archive-date=14 December 2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Spielvogel J|date=1 January 2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LceiAgAAQBAJ&q=western%20civilisation%20egypt&pg=PT65|title=Western Civilization: Volume A: To 1500|publisher=Cenpage Learning|isbn=978-1-285-98299-1|access-date=11 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905105225/https://books.google.com/books?id=LceiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT65#v=onepage&q=western%20civilisation%20egypt|archive-date=5 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Thornton B|year=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fa6swJv64xkC&q=Greek%20Ways%3A%20How%20the%20Greeks%20Created%20Western%20Civilization|title=Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization|location=San Francisco, CA|publisher=Encounter Books|isbn=978-1-893554-57-3|pages=1–14|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222224422/https://books.google.com/books?id=fa6swJv64xkC&q=Greek|archive-date=22 February 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>
Sebuah revolusi perkotaan terjadi pada milenium ke-4 sebelum masehi dengan berkembangnya berbagai [[negara kota]], terutama kota-kota [[Sumeria]] yang terletak di [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Garfinkle SJ, Bang PF, Scheidel W|date=1 February 2013|url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188318.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195188318-e-4|title=Ancient Near Eastern City-States|website=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean|isbn=978-0-19-518831-8|veditors=Bang PF, Scheidel W|language=en|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188318.001.0001|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623152722/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188318.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195188318-e-4|archive-date=23 June 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> Di kota-kota inilah bentuk tulisan paling awal yang diketahui, aksara paku, muncul sekitar tahun 3000 SM.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Woods C|date=28 February 2020|title=A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-119-19329-6|veditors=Hasselbach-Andee R|edition=1st|pages=27–46|language=en|chapter=The Emergence of Cuneiform Writing|doi=10.1002/9781119193814.ch2|s2cid=216180781}}</ref> Peradaban besar lainnya yang berkembang pada masa ini adalah Mesir Kuno dan [[Peradaban Lembah Indus]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=October 2015|title=Ancient civilization: Cracking the Indus script|journal=Nature|volume=526|issue=7574|pages=499–501|bibcode=2015Natur.526..499R|doi=10.1038/526499a|pmid=26490603|vauthors=Robinson A|s2cid=4458743}}</ref> Bangsa-bangsa ini kemudian berdagang satu sama lain dan menciptakan teknologi seperti roda, bajak, dan layar.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Crawford H|year=2013|title=The Sumerian World|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-21911-5|pages=447–61|chapter=Trade in the Sumerian world|author-link=Harriet Crawford}}</ref><ref name=":142">{{cite journal|date=2018|title=Prehistoric innovations: Wheels and wheeled vehicles|url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=714342|journal=Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae|language=English|volume=69|issue=2|pages=271–298|doi=10.1556/072.2018.69.2.3|issn=0001-5210|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623152751/https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=714342|archive-date=23 June 2021|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Bodnár M|s2cid=115685157|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=1985|title=The Invention of the Plow|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/178600|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|volume=27|issue=4|pages=727–743|doi=10.1017/S0010417500011749|issn=0010-4175|jstor=178600|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409092618/https://www.jstor.org/stable/178600|archive-date=9 April 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Pryor FL|s2cid=144840498|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Carter2">{{cite book|vauthors=Carter R|year=2012|url=https://www.academia.edu/1576775|title=A companion to the archaeology of the ancient Near East|location=Chichester, West Sussex|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-8988-0|veditors=Potts DT|pages=347–354|chapter=19. [[Watercraft]]|access-date=8 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428190743/https://www.academia.edu/1576775/Watercraft|archive-date=28 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Astronomi dan matematika juga dikembangkan dan [[Piramida Agung Giza]] pun dibangun.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Pedersen O|year=1993|title=Early physics and astronomy: A historical introduction.|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-40340-5|page=1|chapter=Science Before the Greeks}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Robson E|year=2008|title=Mathematics in ancient Iraq: A social history.|publisher=Princeton University Press|pages=xxi}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=2003|title=Building the Great Pyramid: Probable Construction Methods Employed at Giza|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25148110|journal=Technology and Culture|volume=44|issue=2|pages=340–354|doi=10.1353/tech.2003.0063|issn=0040-165X|jstor=25148110|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306011135/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25148110|archive-date=6 March 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Edwards JF|s2cid=109998651|url-status=live}}</ref> Terdapat bukti adanya kekeringan parah yang berlangsung sekitar seratus tahun yang mungkin menyebabkan kemunduran peradaban-peradaban ini,<ref>{{cite journal|date=August 2018|title=New geological age comes under fire|journal=Science|volume=361|issue=6402|pages=537–538|bibcode=2018Sci...361..537V|doi=10.1126/science.361.6402.537|pmid=30093579|vauthors=Voosen P|s2cid=51954326}}</ref> dan peradaban-peradaban baru muncul setelahnya. Bangsa [[Babilonia]] mendominasi Mesopotamia,<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Saggs HW|year=2000|title=Babylonians|url=https://archive.org/details/babylonians0000sagg|publisher=Univ of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-20222-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/babylonians0000sagg/page/7 7]}}</ref> sementara yang lainnya seperti kebudayaan pra-historis di hilir lembah [[Mississippi|Mississipi]], [[peradaban Minoa]], dan [[Dinasti Shang]], memperoleh kejayaannya di daerah-daerah baru.<ref>{{cite journal|date=1 December 2005|title=Poverty Point as Structure, Event, Process|journal=Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory|language=en|volume=12|issue=4|pages=335–364|doi=10.1007/s10816-005-8460-4|issn=1573-7764|vauthors=Sassaman KE|s2cid=53393440}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=August 2017|title=Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans|journal=Nature|volume=548|issue=7666|pages=214–218|bibcode=2017Natur.548..214L|doi=10.1038/nature23310|pmc=5565772|pmid=28783727|vauthors=Lazaridis I, Mittnik A, Patterson N, Mallick S, Rohland N, Pfrengle S, Furtwängler A, Peltzer A, Posth C, Vasilakis A, McGeorge PJ, Konsolaki-Yannopoulou E, Korres G, Martlew H, Michalodimitrakis M, Özsait M, Özsait N, Papathanasiou A, Richards M, Roodenberg SA, Tzedakis Y, Arnott R, Fernandes DM, Hughey JR, Lotakis DM, Navas PA, Maniatis Y, Stamatoyannopoulos JA, Stewardson K, Stockhammer P, Pinhasi R, Reich D, Krause J, Stamatoyannopoulos G}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Keightley DN|year=1999|title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-47030-8|veditors=Loewe M, Shaughnessy EL|pages=232–291|chapter=The Shang: China's first historical dynasty}}</ref> Zaman Perunggu tiba-tiba [[Keruntuhan Zaman Perunggu Akhir|runtuh]] sekitar tahun 1200 SM, mengakibatkan hilangnya sejumlah peradaban dan dimulainya [[Zaman Kegelapan Yunani]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=2015|title=Drought and societal collapse 3200 years ago in the Eastern Mediterranean: a review|journal=WIREs Climate Change|volume=6|issue=4|pages=369–382|doi=10.1002/wcc.345|vauthors=Kaniewski D, Guiot J, van Campo E|s2cid=128460316}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=1 June 2012|title=The influence of climatic change on the Late Bronze Age Collapse and the Greek Dark Ages|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=39|issue=6|pages=1862–1870|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2012.01.029|vauthors=Drake BL}}</ref> Selama periode ini, besi mulai menggantikan perunggu, yang mengarah ke [[Zaman Besi]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Wells PS|date=2011|title=European Prehistory: A Survey|url=https://archive.org/details/europeanprehisto0000unse_q5z8_2ed|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4419-6633-9|veditors=Milisauskas S|series=Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology|pages=[https://archive.org/details/europeanprehisto0000unse_q5z8_2ed/page/405 405]–460|language=en|chapter=The Iron Age|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-6633-9_11}}</ref>
Pada abad ke-5 SM, sejarah mulai [[Historiografi|dicatat sebagai sebuah disiplin ilmu]], yang memberikan gambaran yang lebih jelas tentang kehidupan pada saat itu.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Hughes-Warrington M|year=2018|title=History as Wonder: Beginning with Historiography.|location=United Kingdom|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-429-76315-1|chapter=Sense and non-sense in Ancient Greek histories}}</ref> Antara abad ke-8 dan ke-6 SM, Eropa memasuki [[zaman klasik]], sebuah periode di mana [[Yunani kuno]] dan [[Romawi kuno]] mengalami kemajuan pesat.<ref>{{cite web|date=2 October 2015|title=Why ancient Rome matters to the modern world|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/oct/02/mary-beard-why-ancient-rome-matters|website=The Guardian|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414130448/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/oct/02/mary-beard-why-ancient-rome-matters|archive-date=14 April 2021|access-date=17 April 2021|vauthors=Beard M|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=11 June 2015|title=Stanford scholar debunks long-held beliefs about economic growth in ancient Greece|url=https://news.stanford.edu/news/2015/june/greek-economy-growth-061115.html|website=Stanford University|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418190351/https://news.stanford.edu/news/2015/june/greek-economy-growth-061115.html|archive-date=18 April 2021|access-date=17 April 2021|vauthors=Vidergar AB|url-status=live}}</ref> Pada masa ini, peradaban-peradaban lain juga menjadi terkenal. [[Peradaban Maya]] mulai membangun kota dan membuat [[Kalender Maya|kalender]] yang rumit.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=June 2020|title=Monumental architecture at Aguada Fénix and the rise of Maya civilization|journal=Nature|volume=582|issue=7813|pages=530–533|bibcode=2020Natur.582..530I|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2343-4|pmid=32494009|vauthors=Inomata T, Triadan D, Vázquez López VA, Fernandez-Diaz JC, Omori T, Méndez Bauer MB, García Hernández M, Beach T, Cagnato C, Aoyama K, Nasu H|s2cid=219281856}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=March 2017|title=The Role of Solar Observations in Developing the Preclassic Maya Calendar|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1045663516000043/type/journal_article|journal=Latin American Antiquity|language=en|volume=28|issue=1|pages=88–104|doi=10.1017/laq.2016.4|issn=1045-6635|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032849/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/latin-american-antiquity/article/role-of-solar-observations-in-developing-the-preclassic-maya-calendar/CE9899861546A50ACE1819A6796D8694|archive-date=30 July 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Milbrath S|s2cid=164417025|url-status=live}}</ref> Di Afrika, [[Kerajaan Aksum]] mengambil alih [[Kerajaan Kush]] yang sedang mengalami kemunduran dan memfasilitasi perdagangan antara [[India]] dan [[Mediterania]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=2016|title=Investigating the eastern edge of the kingdom of Aksum: architecture and pottery from Wakarida|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45163415|journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies|volume=46|pages=25–40|issn=0308-8421|jstor=45163415|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428202622/https://www.jstor.org/stable/45163415|archive-date=28 April 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Benoist A, Charbonnier J, Gajda I|url-status=live}}</ref> Di Asia Barat, sistem pemerintahan terpusat [[Kekaisaran Akhemeniyah|Kekaisaran Achaemenid]] menjadi pendahulu bagi banyak kekaisaran berikutnya,<ref>{{cite journal|date=1 January 1998|title=Administration of the Persian achaemenid world-state empire: implications for modern public administration|journal=International Journal of Public Administration|volume=21|issue=1|pages=25–86|doi=10.1080/01900699808525297|issn=0190-0692|vauthors=Farazmand A}}</ref> sementara [[Kemaharajaan Gupta|Kekaisaran Gupta]] di India dan [[Dinasti Han]] di Tiongkok disebut-sebut sebagai [[zaman keemasan]] di wilayah masing-masing.<ref>{{cite journal|date=1976|title=Kālidāsa and the Attitudes of the Golden Age|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/599886|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=96|issue=1|pages=15–26|doi=10.2307/599886|issn=0003-0279|jstor=599886|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409092718/https://www.jstor.org/stable/599886|archive-date=9 April 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Ingalls DH|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=2020|title=Pillars of Heaven: The Symbolic Function of Column and Bracket Sets in the Han Dynasty|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0066622X20000015/type/journal_article|journal=Architectural History|language=en|volume=63|pages=1–36|doi=10.1017/arh.2020.1|issn=0066-622X|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032850/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/architectural-history/article/abs/pillars-of-heaven-the-symbolic-function-of-column-and-bracket-sets-in-the-han-dynasty/1B1C1C007216E36004F15A1B7D61C87F|archive-date=30 July 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Xie J|s2cid=229716130|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Berkas:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png|jmpl|Rute yang diambil oleh para penyerang barbarian terhadap Kekaisaran Romawi selama [[Masa Migrasi (Eropa)|Periode Migrasi]]]]
Setelah [[Keruntuhan Kekaisaran Romawi Barat|runtuhnya Kekaisaran Romawi Barat]] pada tahun 476, Eropa memasuki [[Abad Pertengahan]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=2018|title=Climate and the Decline and Fall of the Western Roman Empire: A Bibliometric View on an Interdisciplinary Approach to Answer a Most Classic Historical Question|journal=Climate|language=en|volume=6|issue=4|page=90|bibcode=2018Clim....6...90M|doi=10.3390/cli6040090|vauthors=Marx W, Haunschild R, Bornmann L|doi-access=free}}</ref> Selama periode ini, agama [[Kekristenan|Kristen]] dan [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Gereja]] menyajikan otoritas dan pendidikan yang terpusat.<ref name="Oxford University Press">{{cite book|date=2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6HPW1TodZwC&pg=PA71|title=Science and Religion Around the World|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-532819-6|veditors=Brooke JH, Numbers RL|page=72|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510130517/https://books.google.com/books?id=W6HPW1TodZwC&pg=PA71|archive-date=10 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Di Timur Tengah, [[Islam]] menjadi agama yang menonjol dan meluas ke Afrika Utara yang menginspirasi arsitektur-arsitektur uniknya tersendiri dan pembentukan cara hidup yang berbeda.<ref name=":15">{{cite book|vauthors=Renima A, Tiliouine H, Estes RJ|date=2016|title=The State of Social Progress of Islamic Societies: Social, Economic, Political, and Ideological Challenges|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-24774-8|veditors=Tiliouine H, Estes RJ|series=International Handbooks of Quality-of-Life|pages=25–52|language=en|chapter=The Islamic Golden Age: A Story of the Triumph of the Islamic Civilization|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-24774-8_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Vidal-Nanquet P|year=1987|title=The Harper Atlas of World History|publisher=Harper & Row Publishers|page=76}}</ref> [[Dunia Kristiani|Dunia Kristen]] dan [[Dunia Islam|Islam]] pada akhirnya berbenturan, dengan [[Kerajaan Inggris]], [[Kerajaan Prancis]], dan [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]] mendeklarasikan serangkaian perang suci untuk merebut kembali kendali atas [[Tanah Suci]] mereka yang telah dirampas oleh pihak [[Muslim]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Asbridge T|year=2012|title=The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-84983-770-5|chapter=Introduction: The world of the crusades}}</ref> Di Amerika, [[kebudayaan Mississippi]] yang kompleks muncul sekitar tahun 800 Masehi,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-707|author=Adam King|title=Mississippian Period: Overview|encyclopedia=New Georgia Encyclopedia|date=2002|access-date=15 November 2009|archive-date=19 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090819042104/http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-707|url-status=dead}}</ref> sementara lebih jauh ke selatan, suku [[Aztek]] dan [[Kerajaan Inka|Inka]] menjadi kekuatan yang dominan.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Conrad G, Demarest AA|year=1984|title=Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism|url=https://archive.org/details/religionempiredy0000conr|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-31896-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/religionempiredy0000conr/page/2 2]}}</ref> [[Kekaisaran Mongol]] akan menaklukkan sebagian besar Eurasia pada abad ke-13 dan ke-14.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=May T|year=2013|title=The Mongol Conquests in World History|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-971-2|page=7}}</ref> Selama periode waktu yang sama, [[Kekaisaran Mali]] di Afrika tumbuh menjadi kekaisaran terbesar di benua tersebut, membentang dari [[Senegambia]] hingga [[Pantai Gading]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|vauthors=Canós-Donnay S|title=The Empire of Mali|date=25 February 2019|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-266|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.266|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4|access-date=7 May 2021|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020034919/https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-266|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Oseania]] menyaksikan kebangkitan [[Imperium Tuʻi Tonga|Kekaisaran Tuʻi Tonga]] yang meluas ke banyak pulau di [[Pasifik Selatan]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Tongan Maritime Expansion: A Case in the Evolutionary Ecology of Social Complexity|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46734826|journal=Asian Perspectives|volume=37|issue=2|pages=135–164|vauthors=Canela SA, Graves MW}}</ref>
[[Periode modern awal]] di Eropa dan Timur Dekat (sekitar 1450-1800) dimulai dengan [[Kejatuhan Konstantinopel|kekalahan total Kekaisaran Bizantium]], dan [[Kekaisaran Utsmaniyah|kebangkitan Kesultanan Utsmaniyah]].<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Ottomans and Europe|date=1 January 1994|chapter-url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004391659/BP000019.xml|title=Handbook of European History 1400–1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance and Reformation|pages=589–635|veditors=Brady T, Oberman T, Tracy JD|publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/9789004391659_019|isbn=978-90-04-39165-9|access-date=17 April 2021|archive-date=2 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502073325/https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004391659/BP000019.xml|url-status=live}}</ref> Sementara itu, Jepang memasuki [[periode Edo]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|vauthors=Goree R|title=The Culture of Travel in Edo-Period Japan|date=19 November 2020|url=https://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-72|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.72|isbn=978-0-19-027772-7|access-date=7 May 2021|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812150712/https://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-72|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Dinasti Qing]] bangkit di Tiongkok<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Mosca MW|date=2010|title=CHINA'S LAST EMPIRE: The Great Qing|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/a516602ac28aba8955507e46ab41483e/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=25135|journal=Pacific Affairs|volume=83|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=6 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306014457/https://www.proquest.com/openview/a516602ac28aba8955507e46ab41483e/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=25135|url-status=live}}</ref> dan [[Kekaisaran Mughal]] menguasai sebagian besar wilayah India.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Suyanta S, Ikhlas S|date=19 July 2016|title=Islamic Education at Mughal Kingdom in India (1526–1857)|url=https://journal.tarbiyahiainib.ac.id/index.php/attalim/article/view/228|journal=Al-Ta Lim Journal|volume=23|issue=2|pages=128–138|doi=10.15548/jt.v23i2.228|issn=2355-7893|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407082504/http://journal.tarbiyahiainib.ac.id/index.php/attalim/article/view/228|url-status=live}}</ref> Eropa mengalami [[Renaisans]], dimulai pada abad ke-15,<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Kirkpatrick R|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/893909816|title=The European Renaissance, 1400–1600|date=2002|isbn=978-1-317-88646-4|location=Harlow, England|page=1|oclc=893909816|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032848/https://www.worldcat.org/title/european-renaissance-1400-1600/oclc/893909816|url-status=live}}</ref> dan [[Zaman Penemuan]] dimulai dengan penjelajahan dan [[kolonialisme|kolonisasi]] daerah-daerah baru.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Arnold D|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/859536800|title=The Age of Discovery, 1400–1600|date=2002|isbn=978-1-136-47968-7|edition=Second|location=London|pages=xi|oclc=859536800|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032848/https://www.worldcat.org/title/age-of-discovery-1400-1600/oclc/859536800|url-status=live}}</ref> Ini termasuk [[Kekaisaran Inggris]] yang berekspansi menjadi [[Daftar imperium terbesar|kekaisaran terbesar di dunia]]<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Palan R|date=14 January 2010|title=International Financial Centers: The British-Empire, City-States and Commercially Oriented Politics|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.2202/1565-3404.1239/html|journal=Theoretical Inquiries in Law|volume=11|issue=1|doi=10.2202/1565-3404.1239|s2cid=56216309|issn=1565-3404|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=26 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826211616/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.2202/1565-3404.1239/html|url-status=live}}</ref> dan [[Kolonisasi Amerika oleh Eropa|kolonisasi Amerika]].<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Dixon EJ |date= January 2001 |title=Human colonization of the Americas: timing, technology and process |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|language=en|volume=20|issue=1–3 |pages=277–299|doi=10.1016/S0277-3791(00)00116-5|bibcode= 2001QSRv...20..277J }}</ref> Ekspansi ini menyebabkan [[perdagangan budak Atlantik]]<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Lovejoy PE |date=1989 |title=The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/182914 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=365–394 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700024439 |jstor=182914 |s2cid=161321949 |issn=0021-8537 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=6 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306011109/https://www.jstor.org/stable/182914 |url-status=live }}</ref> dan [[genosida penduduk asli]] Amerika.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Cave AA | chapter = Genocide in the Americas|date=2008 | title = The Historiography of Genocide| url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781403992192 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781403992192/page/273 273]–295 | veditors = Stone D |place=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|language=en|doi=10.1057/9780230297784_11|isbn=978-0-230-29778-4}}</ref> Periode ini juga menandai [[Revolusi Ilmiah]], dengan kemajuan besar dalam [[matematika]], [[mekanika]], [[astronomi]], dan [[fisiologi]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Delisle RG | title = Can a revolution hide another one? Charles Darwin and the Scientific Revolution | journal = Endeavour | volume = 38 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 157–8 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25457642 | doi = 10.1016/j.endeavour.2014.10.001 }}</ref>
[[Periode modern akhir]] (1800-sekarang) menyaksikan [[Revolusi Teknologi]] dan [[Revolusi Industri|Industri]] membawa berbagai penemuan seperti teknologi fotografi, inovasi besar dalam pengembangan transportasi dan [[pengembangan energi|energi]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century|url=https://www.greatachievements.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406160644/https://greatachievements.org/|archive-date=6 April 2015|access-date=7 April 2015| work = National Academy of Engineering }}</ref> [[Amerika Serikat]] mengalami perubahan besar, dari [[Tiga Belas Koloni|sekelompok kecil koloni]] menjadi salah satu [[Negara adikuasa|negara adidaya global]].<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Herring GC|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/299054528|title=From colony to superpower : U.S. foreign relations since 1776|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-972343-0|location=New York|page=1|oclc=299054528|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032849/https://www.worldcat.org/title/from-colony-to-superpower-us-foreign-relations-since-1776/oclc/299054528|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Perang Napoleon]] berkecamuk di Eropa pada awal 1800-an,<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=O'Rourke KH|date=March 2006|title=The worldwide economic impact of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1793–1815|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1740022806000076/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Global History|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=123–149|doi=10.1017/S1740022806000076|issn=1740-0228|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032852/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-global-history/article/abs/worldwide-economic-impact-of-the-french-revolutionary-and-napoleonic-wars-17931815/B5D21C47E53307E78358803D4695FCE8|url-status=live}}</ref> Spanyol kehilangan sebagian besar koloninya di [[Dunia Baru]],<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Zimmerman AF|date=November 1931|title=Spain and Its Colonies, 1808–1820|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2506251|journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review|volume=11|issue=4|pages=439–463|doi=10.2307/2506251|jstor=2506251|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=6 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306014948/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2506251|url-status=live}}</ref> sementara Eropa melanjutkan [[Perebutan Afrika|ekspansi ke Afrika]]—ketika kontrol Eropa meningkat dari 10% menjadi hampir 90% dalam waktu kurang dari 50 tahun<ref>{{cite web |date=2011 |title=British History in depth: Slavery and the 'Scramble for Africa' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/abolition/scramble_for_africa_article_01.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324121231/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/abolition/scramble_for_africa_article_01.shtml |archive-date=24 March 2022 |access-date=5 May 2021 |website=[[BBC]] |language=en-GB |vauthors=David S}}</ref>—dan Oseania.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Raudzens G |date=2004 |title=The Australian Frontier Wars, 1788–1838 (review) |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jmh.2004.0138 |journal=The Journal of Military History |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=957–959 |doi=10.1353/jmh.2004.0138 |issn=1543-7795 |s2cid=162259092}}</ref> [[Keseimbangan kekuasaan (hubungan internasional)|Keseimbangan kekuatan]] yang renggang di antara negara-negara Eropa runtuh pada tahun 1914 dengan pecahnya [[Perang Dunia I|Perang Dunia Pertama]], yang merupakan salah satu konflik paling mematikan dalam sejarah.<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Clark CM|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/794136314|title=The sleepwalkers : how Europe went to war in 1914|date=2012|publisher=Allen Lane|isbn=978-0-7139-9942-6|location=London|chapter=Polarization of Europe, 1887–1907|oclc=794136314|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032849/https://www.worldcat.org/title/sleepwalkers-how-europe-went-to-war-in-1914/oclc/794136314|url-status=live}}</ref> Pada tahun 1930-an, [[Depresi Besar|krisis ekonomi di seluruh dunia]] menyebabkan munculnya rezim [[Otoritarianisme|otoriter]] dan [[Perang Dunia II|Perang Dunia Kedua]], yang melibatkan [[Daftar negara yang terlibat dalam Perang Dunia II|hampir semua negara di dunia]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Robert Dahl |title=Democracy and Its Critics |url=https://archive.org/details/democracyitscrit00dahl_0 |url-access=registration |year=1989 |publisher=Yale UP |pages=[https://archive.org/details/democracyitscrit00dahl_0/page/239 239–40] |isbn=0-300-15355-4}}</ref> Setelah berakhir pada tahun 1945, [[Perang Dingin]] antara [[Uni Soviet]] dan Amerika Serikat menjadi ajang perebutan pengaruh global, termasuk [[perlombaan senjata nuklir]] dan [[Perlombaan Antariksa|kompetisi antariksa]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = McDougall WA |date=May 1985|title=Sputnik, the space race, and the Cold War|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00963402.1985.11455962|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=41|issue=5|pages=20–25|doi=10.1080/00963402.1985.11455962|bibcode=1985BuAtS..41e..20M|issn=0096-3402}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Plous S|date=May 1993|title=The Nuclear Arms Race: Prisoner's Dilemma or Perceptual Dilemma?|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022343393030002004|journal=Journal of Peace Research|language=en|volume=30|issue=2|pages=163–179|doi=10.1177/0022343393030002004|s2cid=5482851|issn=0022-3433|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=21 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221155825/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022343393030002004|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Era Informasi]] saat ini membuat dunia menjadi semakin ter[[globalisasi]] dan saling terhubung.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Sachs JD|date=April 2017|title=Globalization—In the Name of Which Freedom?|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s41463-017-0019-5|journal=Humanistic Management Journal|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=237–252|doi=10.1007/s41463-017-0019-5|s2cid=133030709|issn=2366-603X|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032849/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41463-017-0019-5|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Habitat dan populasi ==
{{Further|Demografi}}{{Infobox|image=[[Berkas:People's -Km² for all countries (and us states, uk kingdoms).png|300px]]|title=Statistik populasi{{#tag:ref|Statistik populasi dan kepadatan populasi dunia diperbarui secara otomatis dari templat yang menggunakan CIA World Factbook dan United Nations World Population Prospects.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world |title=World |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[CIA]] |date=17 May 2016 |access-date=2 October 2016 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032610/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_KeyFindings.pdf |publisher=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division |date=2017 |title=World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision |page=2&17 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=26 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626225001/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_KeyFindings.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=n}}|label1=Populasi dunia|data1={{#expr: {{data world|poptoday}} / 1e9 round 1}} miliar|label2=Kepadatan populasi|data2={{Pop density|{{data world|poptoday}}|{{data world|pst2|total area}}|km2|prec =0}} dengan area total<br />{{Pop density|{{data world|poptoday}}|{{data world|pst2|land area}}|km2|prec =0}} dengan area tanah|label3=Kota-kota terbesar{{#tag:ref|Kota-kota yang tahun 2018 berpenghuni lebih dari 10 juta.<ref>{{cite news|title=The World's Cities in 2018|url=https://www.un.org/en/events/citiesday/assets/pdf/the_worlds_cities_in_2018_data_booklet.pdf|access-date=|newspaper=[[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]|archive-date=1 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101135338/http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2018_data_booklet.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=n}}|data3=[[Tokyo]], [[Delhi]], [[Shanghai]], [[São Paulo]], [[Mexico City]], [[Kairo]], [[Mumbai]], [[Beijing]], [[Dhaka]], [[Osaka]], [[New York City|New York]]-[[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]], [[Karachi]], [[Buenos Aires]], [[Chongqing]], [[Istanbul]], [[Kolkata]], [[Manila]], [[Lagos]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Tianjin]], [[Kinshasa]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Los Angeles]]-[[Santa Ana, California|Santa Ana]], [[Moscow]], [[Shenzhen]], [[Lahore]], [[Bangalore]], [[Paris]], [[Jakarta]], [[Chennai]], [[Lima]], [[Bogotá|Bogota]], [[Bangkok]], [[London]]}}
Pemukiman manusia awal bergantung pada kedekatan jaraknya dengan [[Sumber daya air|air]] dan—tergantung pada gaya hidup—juga [[sumber daya alam]] lain yang diperlukan untuk [[subsistensi|bertahan hidup]], seperti populasi [[perburuan|hewan buruan]] dan [[lahan subur]] untuk bercocok tanam dan menggembalakan ternak.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Rector RK|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/953735302|title=The Early River Valley Civilizations|date=2016|isbn=978-1-4994-6329-3|edition=First|location=New York, NY|page=10|oclc=953735302|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032849/https://www.worldcat.org/title/early-river-valley-civilizations/oclc/953735302|url-status=live}}</ref> Namun, manusia modern memiliki kapasitas yang besar untuk mengubah [[habitat]] mereka melalui teknologi, [[irigasi]], [[perencanaan kota]], konstruksi, [[penggundulan hutan]] dan [[penggurunan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.westerville.k12.oh.us/userfiles/4188/Classes/7526/humanforcesthatchangeenvironment.pdf?id=448117 |title=How People Modify the Environment |author=<!--Not stated--> |publisher=[[Westerville City School District]] |access-date=13 March 2019 |archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225132108/http://www.westerville.k12.oh.us/userfiles/4188/Classes/7526/humanforcesthatchangeenvironment.pdf?id=448117 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Pemukiman manusia]] senantiasa rentan terhadap [[bencana alam]], terutama yang berada di lokasi rawan dan dengan kualitas konstruksi yang rendah.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLACREGTOPHAZMAN/Resources/EN_Breve_Oct03_32_Nat_Dis_EN.pdf |title=Natural disasters and the urban poor |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |date=Oktober 2003 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809063303/https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLACREGTOPHAZMAN/Resources/EN_Breve_Oct03_32_Nat_Dis_EN.pdf |archive-date=9 Agustus 2017 }}</ref> Pengelompokan dan perubahan habitat yang disengaja sering kali dilakukan dengan tujuan untuk memberikan perlindungan, meningkatkan kenyamanan atau kekayaan materi, memperbanyak jumlah makanan yang tersedia, menambah [[estetika]], memperluas ilmu pengetahuan, atau mendorong pertukaran sumber daya.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Habitat UN|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/889953315|title=The state of the world's cities 2012 / prosperity of cities.|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-01559-6|location=[London]|pages=x|oclc=889953315|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032849/https://www.worldcat.org/title/state-of-the-worlds-cities-2012-prosperity-of-cities/oclc/889953315|url-status=live}}</ref>
Meskipun memiliki toleransi yang rendah terhadap banyak kondisi lingkungan yang ekstrem di bumi, manusia adalah salah satu spesies yang paling mudah ber[[adaptasi]].<ref name=":10">{{cite book|vauthors=Piantadosi CA|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/70215878|title=The biology of human survival : life and death in extreme environments|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-974807-5|location=Oxford|pages=2–3|oclc=70215878|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032850/https://www.worldcat.org/title/biology-of-human-survival-life-and-death-in-extreme-environments/oclc/70215878|url-status=live}}</ref> Melalui alat-alat canggih, manusia telah mampu meningkatkan toleransi mereka terhadap berbagai macam suhu, [[kelembapan]], dan ketinggian.<ref name=":10" /> Sebagai hasilnya, manusia menjadi spesies [[Distribusi kosmopolitan|kosmopolitan]] yang ditemukan di hampir semua wilayah di dunia, termasuk [[hutan hujan tropis]], [[gurun|gurun gersang]], [[Arktika|daerah kutub]] yang sangat dingin, dan kota-kota yang sangat tercemar; sebagai perbandingan, sebagian besar spesies lain terbatas pada beberapa wilayah geografis karena kemampuan beradaptasinya yang terbatas.<ref name="adapt1">{{cite web |vauthors=O'Neil D |title=Human Biological Adaptability; Overview |url=https://anthro.palomar.edu/adapt/adapt_1.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306124405/https://anthro.palomar.edu/adapt/adapt_1.htm |archive-date=6 March 2013 |access-date=6 January 2013 |publisher=Palomar College}}</ref> Namun demikian, [[populasi manusia]] tidak terdistribusi secara merata di permukaan [[bumi]], karena kepadatan populasi bervariasi dari satu wilayah ke wilayah lain, dan sebagian besar permukaan bumi hampir sama sekali tidak berpenghuni, seperti [[Antartika]] dan lautan yang luas.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/population/population_distribution_rev1.shtml |publisher=BBC |title=Population distribution and density |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623234027/https://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/population/population_distribution_rev1.shtml |archive-date=23 June 2017 |access-date=26 June 2017 }}</ref> Sebagian besar manusia (61%) tinggal di Asia; sisanya tinggal di Amerika (14%), Afrika (14%), Eropa (11%), dan Oseania (0,5%).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bunn SE, Arthington AH |title=Basic principles and ecological consequences of altered flow regimes for aquatic biodiversity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_environmental-management_2002-10_30_4/page/492 |journal=[[Environmental Management (jurnal)|Environmental Management]] |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=492–507 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12481916 |doi=10.1007/s00267-002-2737-0 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=25834286 |hdl=10072/6758}}</ref>
Dalam satu abad terakhir, manusia telah menjelajahi berbagai lingkungan yang menantang seperti Antartika, [[laut dalam]], dan [[luar angkasa]].<ref name=":11">{{cite journal |vauthors=Heim BE |year=1990–1991 |title=Exploring the Last Frontiers for Mineral Resources: A Comparison of International Law Regarding the Deep Seabed, Outer Space, and Antarctica |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/vantl23&id=831&div=&collection= |journal=[[Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law]] |volume=23 |page=819 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=23 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623152719/https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals%2Fvantl23&id=831&div=&collection= |url-status=live}}</ref> Tempat tinggal manusia di lingkungan yang tidak bersahabat ini sangat terbatas dan berbiaya mahal, umumnya terbatas dalam jangka waktu tertentu, dan terbatas untuk ekspedisi [[ilmu|ilmiah]], [[militer]], atau [[industri]].<ref name=":11" /> Manusia telah mengunjungi [[Penjelajahan Bulan|Bulan]] secara singkat, dan telah menunjukkan kehadirannya di beberapa [[Objek astronomi|benda langit]] lainnya melalui [[Wahana antariksa nirawak|pesawat ruang angkasa robotik]] buatan mereka.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/mars-science-laboratory-curiosity-rover-msl/ |title=Mission to Mars: Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity Rover |publisher=Jet Propulsion Laboratory |access-date=26 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818014850/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/mars-science-laboratory-curiosity-rover-msl |archive-date=18 August 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Rosetta/Touchdown!_Rosetta_s_Philae_probe_lands_on_comet |title=Touchdown! Rosetta's Philae probe lands on comet |date=12 November 2014 |publisher=European Space Agency |access-date=26 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150822055902/https://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Rosetta/Touchdown!_Rosetta_s_Philae_probe_lands_on_comet |archive-date=22 August 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/missions/near/ |title=NEAR-Shoemaker |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=26 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150826173835/https://science.nasa.gov/missions/near/ |archive-date=26 August 2015 }}</ref> Sejak awal abad ke-20, telah terdapat kehadiran manusia secara kontinyu di Antartika melalui stasiun penelitian dan, sejak tahun 2000, di luar angkasa melalui habitasi di [[Stasiun Luar Angkasa Internasional]].<ref name="urlNASA">{{cite web |vauthors=Kraft R |title=JSC celebrates ten years of continuous human presence aboard the International Space Station |url=https://www.jsc.nasa.gov/jscfeatures/articles/000000945.html |publisher=[[Johnson Space Center]] |work=JSC Features |date=11 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216221409/https://www.jsc.nasa.gov/jscfeatures/articles/000000945.html |archive-date=16 February 2012 |access-date=13 February 2012 }}</ref>
[[Berkas:Distribution-of-earths-mammals.png|jmpl|Manusia dan hewan yang mereka pelihara mewakili 96% dari seluruh biomassa mamalia di bumi, sedangkan seluruh mamalia liar hanya mewakili 4%.<ref name="Bar-On">{{cite journal|date=June 2018|title=The biomass distribution on Earth|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=115|issue=25|pages=6506–6511|bibcode=2018PNAS..115.6506B|doi=10.1073/pnas.1711842115|pmc=6016768|pmid=29784790|vauthors=Bar-On YM, Phillips R, Milo R|doi-access=free}}</ref>]]
Pada saat pertanian muncul sekitar tahun 10.000 SM, jumlah penduduk dunia diperkirakan berkisar antara 1 juta hingga 15 juta jiwa.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Tellier LN |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC&pg=PA26 |title=Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective |date=2009 |isbn=978-2-7605-1588-8 |page=26 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408113906/https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC&pg=PA26 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Thomlinson R |title=Demographic problems; controversy over population control. |url=https://archive.org/details/demographicprobl0000thom_1975 |date=1975 |edition=2nd |publisher=Dickenson Pub. Co |location=Ecino, California |isbn=978-0-8221-0166-6}}</ref> Pada abad ke-4 Masehi, sekitar 50-60 juta orang tinggal di [[Kekaisaran Romawi]] Timur dan Barat.<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Harl KW |date=1998 |title=Population estimates of the Roman Empire |url=https://www.tulane.edu/~august/H303/handouts/Population.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507061006/https://www.tulane.edu/~august/H303/handouts/Population.htm|archive-date=7 May 2016|access-date=8 December 2012|publisher=Tulane.edu}}</ref> [[Wabah pes]], yang pertama kali tercatat pada abad ke-6 Masehi, mengurangi populasi manusia hingga 50%, dengan 75-200 juta orang di [[Eurasia]] dan [[Afrika Utara]] tewas akibat wabah yang dikenal sebagai [[Maut Hitam]] ini.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zietz BP, Dunkelberg H | title = The history of the plague and the research on the causative agent Yersinia pestis |journal = International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health |volume=207 |issue=2 |pages=165–78 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 15031959 | doi = 10.1078/1438-4639-00259 |pmc=7128933}}</ref> Populasi manusia diyakini mencapai satu miliar pada tahun 1800. Sejak saat itu jumlahnya terus meningkat secara eksponensial, mencapai dua miliar pada tahun 1930 dan tiga miliar pada tahun 1960, empat miliar pada tahun 1975, lima miliar pada tahun 1987, dan enam miliar pada tahun 1999.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/411162.stm |access-date=5 February 2008 |work=BBC News |title=World's population reaches six billion |date=5 August 1999 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415053354/https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/411162.stm |archive-date=15 April 2008 }}</ref> Jumlahnya mencapai tujuh miliar pada tahun 2011<ref>{{Cite web |author=United Nations |title=World population to reach 8 billion on 15 November 2022 |url=https://www.un.org/en/desa/world-population-reach-8-billion-15-november-2022 |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=United Nations |language=en}}</ref> dan delapan miliar pada November 2022.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-03792-4 |date=23 November 2022 |title=Eight billion people, SARS-CoV-2 ancestor and illegal fishing |journal=[[Nature (jurnal)|Nature]] |volume=611 |issue=641 |page=641 |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-03792-4 |s2cid=253764233 |access-date=26 January 2023 }}</ref> Dibutuhkan lebih dari dua juta tahun [[prasejarah]] dan [[sejarah manusia]] untuk populasi mereka mencapai satu [[miliar]] dan hanya butuh 207 tahun untuk mencapai 7 miliar.<ref>{{cite web |date=27 October 2011 |title=World Population to Hit Milestone With Birth of 7 Billionth Person |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/world-july-dec11-population1_10-27/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924090953/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/world-july-dec11-population1_10-27/ |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=11 February 2018 |website=PBS NewsHour}}</ref> [[Biomassa]] gabungan dari karbon yang dihasilkan oleh seluruh manusia di Bumi pada tahun 2018 diperkirakan mencapai 60 juta ton, sekitar 10 kali lebih besar daripada yang dihasilkan oleh seluruh mamalia yang tidak didomestikasi.<ref name="Bar-On">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bar-On YM, Phillips R, Milo R | title = The biomass distribution on Earth | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 115 | issue = 25 | pages = 6506–6511 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29784790 | pmc = 6016768 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1711842115 | bibcode = 2018PNAS..115.6506B | doi-access = free }}</ref>
=== Anatomi dan fisiologi ===
{{Main|Tubuh manusia}}
[[Berkas:Anterior_view_of_human_female_and_male,_with_labels_2.png|jmpl|Fitur anatomi dasar manusia wanita dan pria. Kedua model ini telah dihilangkan [[rambut tubuh]]nya, serta [[rambut wajah]]nya untuk pria, dan dipangkas rambut kepalanya. Model wanita mengenakan [[cat kuku]] merah pada [[kuku|kuku jari kaki]]nya dan sebuah cincin.]]
Sebagian besar aspek fisiologi manusia sangat [[Homologi (biologi)|mirip]] dengan aspek fisiologi hewan. Tubuh manusia terdiri dari [[tungkai|kaki]], [[batang tubuh|badan]], lengan, [[leher]], dan kepala. Tubuh manusia dewasa terdiri dari sekitar 100 triliun (10<sup>14</sup>) [[sel (biologi)|sel]]. [[Sistem biologi|Sistem tubuh]] yang paling banyak didefinisikan pada manusia adalah [[sistem saraf]], [[Sistem peredaran darah|kardiovaskular]], [[Sistem pencernaan|pencernaan]], [[Sistem endokrin|endokrin]], [[Sistem imun|kekebalan tubuh]], [[Sistem integumen|integumen]], [[Sistem limfatik|limfatik]], [[sistem muskuloskeletal manusia|muskuloskeletal]], [[Sistem reproduksi manusia|reproduksi]], [[Sistem pernapasan|pernafasan]], dan [[Sistem perkemihan|sistem kemih]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Roza G |title=Inside the human body : using scientific and exponential notation |date=2007 |publisher=Rosen Pub. Group's PowerKids Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4042-3362-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vhO8Ia2ik7oC |page=21 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=10 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151110200741/https://books.google.com/books?id=vhO8Ia2ik7oC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Human Anatomy |url=https://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html |publisher=Inner Body |access-date=6 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105065620/https://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html |archive-date=5 January 2013 }}</ref> [[Rumus gigi]] manusia adalah: {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2.3|lower=2.1.2.3}}. Manusia memiliki [[Palatum|langit-langit mulut]] yang lebih pendek secara proporsional dan [[gigi manusia|gigi]] yang jauh lebih kecil daripada primata lainnya. Mereka adalah satu-satunya primata yang memiliki [[gigi taring]] yang pendek dan relatif rata. Manusia memiliki karakteristik gigi yang berjejal, dengan celah dari gigi yang tanggal biasanya menutup dengan cepat pada individu yang masih muda. Manusia secara bertahap kehilangan [[Gigi bungsu|gigi geraham ketiga]] mereka, dengan beberapa individu tidak memiliki gigi geraham ketiga sejak lahir.<ref name="Revolution">{{cite book| vauthors = Collins D |url=https://archive.org/details/humanrevolutionf0000coll|title=The Human Revolution: From Ape to Artist|year=1976|isbn=978-0-7148-1676-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/humanrevolutionf0000coll/page/208 208]|url-access=registration}}</ref>
Sama seperti simpanse, manusia memiliki ekor [[Vestigialitas|vestigial]], [[Umbai cacing|usus buntu]], sendi bahu yang fleksibel, jari-jari yang menggenggam, dan [[ibu jari|jempol tangan yang berlawanan]].<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Marks JM |title=Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History|date=2001|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-0-202-36656-2|page=16|language=en}}</ref> Terlepas dari bipedalisme dan ukuran otak, manusia memiliki perbedaan dengan simpanse dalam hal [[penciuman]], [[pendengaran]], dan [[pencernaan]] protein.<ref name="O'Neil" /> Meskipun manusia memiliki kepadatan [[folikel rambut]] yang sebanding dengan kera lainnya, sebagian besar merupakan [[Rambut vellus|rambut halus]], yang sebagian besar sangat pendek dan tipis sehingga hampir tidak terlihat.<ref>{{cite news|date=2017|title=How to be Human: The reason we are so scarily hairy|work=New Scientist|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23631460-700-why-are-humans-so-hairy/|access-date=29 April 2020|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225235006/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23631460-700-why-are-humans-so-hairy/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sandel AA | title = Brief communication: Hair density and body mass in mammals and the evolution of human hairlessness | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 152 | issue = 1 | pages = 145–50 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 23900811 | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.22333 | hdl-access = free | hdl = 2027.42/99654 }}</ref> Manusia memiliki sekitar 2 juta [[kelenjar keringat]] yang tersebar di seluruh tubuhnya, lebih banyak dari simpanse yang kelenjar keringatnya lebih sedikit dan sebagian besar terletak di telapak tangan dan telapak kaki.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Kirchweger G |title=The Biology of Skin Color: Black and White|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/07/3/text_pop/l_073_04.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216070146/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/07/3/text_pop/l_073_04.html|archive-date=16 February 2013|access-date=6 January 2013|date=2 February 2001|work=Evolution: Library|publisher=PBS}}</ref>
Diperkirakan bahwa [[Tinggi badan manusia|tinggi rata-rata manusia dewasa]] berjenis kelamin laki-laki di seluruh dunia adalah sekitar 171 cm, sedangkan tinggi rata-rata manusia dewasa berjenis kelamin wanita sekitar 159 cm.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Roser M, Appel C, Ritchie H|date=8 October 2013|title=Human Height|url=https://ourworldindata.org/human-height|journal=Our World in Data|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130203158/https://ourworldindata.org/human-height|url-status=live}}</ref> Penyusutan perawakan dapat dimulai pada usia paruh baya pada beberapa individu, tetapi cenderung terjadi pada mereka yang [[Masa tua|berusia lanjut]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Senior Citizens Do Shrink – Just One of the Body Changes of Aging|url=https://seniorjournal.com/NEWS/Aging/5-11-28-SeniorsDoShrink.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130219004303/https://seniorjournal.com/NEWS/Aging/5-11-28-SeniorsDoShrink.htm|archive-date=19 February 2013|access-date=6 January 2013|work=News|publisher=Senior Journal}}</ref> Sepanjang sejarah, populasi manusia secara universal menjadi lebih tinggi, mungkin sebagai imbas dari nutrisi, perawatan kesehatan, dan kondisi kehidupan yang lebih baik.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bogin B, Rios L | title = Rapid morphological change in living humans: implications for modern human origins | journal = Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology | volume = 136 | issue = 1 | pages = 71–84 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 14527631 | doi = 10.1016/S1095-6433(02)00294-5 }}</ref> Massa rata-rata manusia dewasa adalah 59 kg untuk wanita dan 77 kg untuk pria.<ref>{{cite web|title=Human weight|url=https://www.articleworld.org/index.php/Human_weight|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208053451/https://articleworld.org/index.php/Human_weight|archive-date=8 December 2011|access-date=10 December 2011|publisher=Articleworld.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Schlessingerman A | date = 2003 |title=Mass Of An Adult|url=https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2003/AlexSchlessingerman.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101030223/https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2003/AlexSchlessingerman.shtml|archive-date=1 January 2018|access-date=31 December 2017|publisher=The Physics Factbook: An Encyclopedia of Scientific Essays}}</ref> Seperti banyak kondisi lainnya, berat badan dan tipe tubuh dipengaruhi oleh kerentanan genetik dan lingkungan, dan sangat bervariasi di antara setiap individu.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Kushner R|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWjK5etS7PMC&pg=PA121|title=Treatment of the Obese Patient (Contemporary Endocrinology)|publisher=Humana Press|year=2007|isbn=978-1-59745-400-1|location=Totowa, NJ|page=158|access-date=5 April 2009|archive-date=22 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022104816/https://books.google.com/books?id=vWjK5etS7PMC&pg=PA121|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Anes2000">{{cite journal | vauthors = Adams JP, Murphy PG | title = Obesity in anaesthesia and intensive care | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-anaesthesia_2000-07_85_1/page/91 | journal = British Journal of Anaesthesia | volume = 85 | issue = 1 | pages = 91–108 | date = July 2000 | pmid = 10927998 | doi = 10.1093/bja/85.1.91 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Manusia memiliki lemparan yang jauh lebih cepat dan lebih akurat daripada hewan lainnya.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Lombardo MP, Deaner RO |date=March 2018|title=Born to Throw: The Ecological Causes that Shaped the Evolution of Throwing In Humans |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology|language=en|volume=93|issue=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.1086/696721|s2cid=90757192|issn=0033-5770}}</ref> Manusia juga merupakan pelari jarak jauh terbaik di dunia hewan, tetapi lebih lambat dalam jarak pendek.<ref name="O'Neil">{{cite web | vauthors = O'Neil D |title=Humans |url=https://anthro.palomar.edu/primate/prim_8.htm |work=Primates |publisher=Palomar College |access-date=6 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111004211/https://anthro.palomar.edu/primate/prim_8.htm |archive-date=11 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/27/health/27well.html |work=The New York Times |title=The Human Body Is Built for Distance | vauthors = Parker-Pope T |author-link1=Tara Parker-Pope |date=27 October 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105211812/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/27/health/27well.html |archive-date=5 November 2015 }}</ref> Rambut tubuh manusia yang lebih tipis dan kelenjar keringat yang lebih produktif membantu menghindari kelelahan akibat panas saat berlari jarak jauh.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = John B |title=What is the role of sweating glands in balancing body temperature when running a marathon? |url=https://www.livestrong.com/article/514545-what-is-the-role-of-sweat-glands-in-balancing-body-temperature-when-running-a-marathon/ |publisher=Livestrong.com |access-date=6 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131184339/https://www.livestrong.com/article/514545-what-is-the-role-of-sweat-glands-in-balancing-body-temperature-when-running-a-marathon/ |archive-date=31 January 2013 }}</ref>
===
{{Main|Genetika manusia}}
[[Berkas:Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png|jmpl|Representasi grafis dari [[kariotipe]] standar manusia, termasuk kromosom seks perempuan (XX) dan laki-laki (XY) (kanan bawah), serta [[genetika mitokondria manusia|genom mitokondria]] (ditampilkan dalam skala sebagai "MT" di kiri bawah).{{further|Kariotipe}}]]
Seperti kebanyakan binatang, manusia adalah spesies [[diploid]] dan [[Eukariota|eukariotik]]. Setiap [[sel somatik]] manusia memiliki dua set 23 [[kromosom]], masing-masing set diterima dari satu orang tua; [[sel gamet|gamet]] mereka hanya memiliki satu set kromosom, yang merupakan campuran dari dua set orang tua. Di antara 23 pasang kromosom tersebut, terdapat 22 pasang [[autosom]] dan satu pasang [[Sistem penentuan kelamin|kromosom kelamin]]. Seperti mamalia lainnya, manusia memiliki [[sistem penentuan jenis kelamin XY]], di mana perempuan memiliki kromosom seks XX dan laki-laki memiliki XY.<ref name="Therman1980">{{cite book | vauthors = Therman E |title=Human Chromosomes: Structure, Behavior, Effects | url = https://archive.org/details/humanchromosomes0000ther_f7n0 |date=1980 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer US]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/humanchromosomes0000ther_f7n0/page/112 112]–24 |isbn=978-1-4684-0109-7 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-0107-3|s2cid=36686283 }}</ref> [[Gen]] dan [[Lingkungan biofisik|lingkungan]] mempengaruhi variasi biologis manusia dalam karakteristik yang tampak, fisiologi, kerentanan terhadap penyakit, dan kemampuan mental. Pengaruh [[Lingkungan biofisik|gen dan lingkungan]] yang pasti pada sifat-sifat tertentu masih belum dipahami sepenuhnya.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Edwards JH, Dent T, Kahn J | title = Monozygotic twins of different sex | journal = Journal of Medical Genetics | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 117–23 | date = June 1966 | pmid = 6007033 | pmc = 1012913 | doi = 10.1136/jmg.3.2.117 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Machin GA | title = Some causes of genotypic and phenotypic discordance in monozygotic twin pairs | journal = American Journal of Medical Genetics | volume = 61 | issue = 3 | pages = 216–28 | date = January 1996 | pmid = 8741866 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(19960122)61:3<216::AID-AJMG5>3.0.CO;2-S }}</ref>
Meskipun tidak ada manusia-bahkan [[kembar|kembar monozigot]] sekalipun-yang identik secara genetik,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jonsson H, Magnusdottir E, Eggertsson HP, Stefansson OA, Arnadottir GA, Eiriksson O, Zink F, Helgason EA, Jonsdottir I, Gylfason A, Jonasdottir A, Jonasdottir A, Beyter D, Steingrimsdottir T, Norddahl GL, Magnusson OT, Masson G, Halldorsson BV, Thorsteinsdottir U, Helgason A, Sulem P, Gudbjartsson DF, Stefansson K | display-authors = 6 | title = Differences between germline genomes of monozygotic twins | journal = Nature Genetics | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = 27–34 | date = January 2021 | pmid = 33414551 | doi = 10.1038/s41588-020-00755-1 | s2cid = 230986741 }}</ref> dua manusia rata-rata memiliki kesamaan genetik 99,5%-99,9%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Genetic – Understanding Human Genetic Variation|url=https://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih1/genetic/guide/genetic_variation1.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825143543/https://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih1/genetic/guide/genetic_variation1.htm|archive-date=25 August 2013|access-date=13 December 2013|work=Human Genetic Variation|publisher=National Institute of Health (NIH)|quote=Between any two humans, the amount of genetic variation—biochemical individuality—is about 0.1%.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Levy S, Sutton G, Ng PC, Feuk L, Halpern AL, Walenz BP, Axelrod N, Huang J, Kirkness EF, Denisov G, Lin Y, MacDonald JR, Pang AW, Shago M, Stockwell TB, Tsiamouri A, Bafna V, Bansal V, Kravitz SA, Busam DA, Beeson KY, McIntosh TC, Remington KA, Abril JF, Gill J, Borman J, Rogers YH, Frazier ME, Scherer SW, Strausberg RL, Venter JC | display-authors = 6 | title = The diploid genome sequence of an individual human | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 5 | issue = 10 | pages = e254 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17803354 | pmc = 1964779 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0050254 }}</ref> Hal ini membuat mereka lebih [[variasi genetika manusia|homogen]] dibandingkan kera besar lainnya, termasuk simpanse.<ref name="REGWG2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = ((Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group)) | title = The use of racial, ethnic, and ancestral categories in human genetics research | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 77 | issue = 4 | pages = 519–32 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16175499 | pmc = 1275602 | doi = 10.1086/491747 }}</ref><ref name="oxf">{{cite web|title=Chimps show much greater genetic diversity than humans|url=https://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_stories/2012/120302.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218091207/https://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_stories/2012/120302.html|archive-date=18 December 2013|access-date=13 December 2013|work=Media|publisher=University of Oxford}}</ref> Variasi kecil dalam DNA manusia jika dibandingkan dengan banyak spesies lain menunjukkan adanya [[hambatan populasi]] selama masa [[Pleistosen Akhir]] (sekitar 100.000 tahun yang lalu), ketika populasi manusia berkurang menjadi sejumlah kecil pasangan yang berkembang biak.<ref name="Harpending1998">{{cite journal | vauthors = Harpending HC, Batzer MA, Gurven M, Jorde LB, Rogers AR, Sherry ST | title = Genetic traces of ancient demography | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 95 | issue = 4 | pages = 1961–7 | date = February 1998 | pmid = 9465125 | pmc = 19224 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.95.4.1961 | bibcode = 1998PNAS...95.1961H | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Jorde1997">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jorde LB, Rogers AR, Bamshad M, Watkins WS, Krakowiak P, Sung S, Kere J, Harpending HC | display-authors = 6 | title = Microsatellite diversity and the demographic history of modern humans | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 94 | issue = 7 | pages = 3100–3 | date = April 1997 | pmid = 9096352 | pmc = 20328 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.94.7.3100 | bibcode = 1997PNAS...94.3100J | doi-access = free }}</ref> Kekuatan [[seleksi alam]] terus bekerja pada populasi manusia, dengan bukti bahwa daerah tertentu pada [[genom]] menunjukkan [[seleksi terarah]] dalam 15.000 tahun terakhir.<ref name="urlNYT">{{cite news| vauthors = Wade N |date=7 March 2007|title=Still Evolving, Human Genes Tell New Story|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/07/science/07evolve.html|url-status=live|access-date=13 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114232231/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/07/science/07evolve.html|archive-date=14 January 2012}}</ref>
[[Genom manusia]] pertama kali diurutkan pada tahun 2001<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pennisi E | author-link=Elizabeth Pennisi | title = The human genome | journal = Science | volume = 291 | issue = 5507 | pages = 1177–80 | date = February 2001 | pmid = 11233420 | doi = 10.1126/science.291.5507.1177 | s2cid = 38355565 }}</ref> dan pada tahun 2020, ratusan ribu genom telah diurutkan.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rotimi CN, Adeyemo AA | title = From one human genome to a complex tapestry of ancestry | journal = Nature | volume = 590 | issue = 7845 | pages = 220–221 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 33568827 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-021-00237-2 | bibcode = 2021Natur.590..220R | s2cid = 231882262 }}</ref> Pada tahun 2012, [[Proyek HapMap Internasional]] telah membandingkan genom 1.184 individu dari 11 populasi dan mengidentifikasi 1,6 juta [[polimorfisme nukleotida tunggal]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Altshuler DM, Gibbs RA, Peltonen L, Altshuler DM, Gibbs RA, Peltonen L, Dermitzakis E, Schaffner SF, Yu F, Peltonen L, Dermitzakis E, Bonnen PE, Altshuler DM, Gibbs RA, de Bakker PI, Deloukas P, Gabriel SB, Gwilliam R, Hunt S, Inouye M, Jia X, Palotie A, Parkin M, Whittaker P, Yu F, Chang K, Hawes A, Lewis LR, Ren Y, Wheeler D, Gibbs RA, Muzny DM, Barnes C, Darvishi K, Hurles M, Korn JM, Kristiansson K, Lee C, McCarrol SA, Nemesh J, Dermitzakis E, Keinan A, Montgomery SB, Pollack S, Price AL, Soranzo N, Bonnen PE, Gibbs RA, Gonzaga-Jauregui C, Keinan A, Price AL, Yu F, Anttila V, Brodeur W, Daly MJ, Leslie S, McVean G, Moutsianas L, Nguyen H, Schaffner SF, Zhang Q, Ghori MJ, McGinnis R, McLaren W, Pollack S, Price AL, Schaffner SF, Takeuchi F, Grossman SR, Shlyakhter I, Hostetter EB, Sabeti PC, Adebamowo CA, Foster MW, Gordon DR, Licinio J, Manca MC, Marshall PA, Matsuda I, Ngare D, Wang VO, Reddy D, Rotimi CN, Royal CD, Sharp RR, Zeng C, Brooks LD, McEwen JE | display-authors = 6 | title = Integrating common and rare genetic variation in diverse human populations | journal = Nature | volume = 467 | issue = 7311 | pages = 52–8 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20811451 | doi = 10.1038/nature09298 | pmc = 3173859 | bibcode = 2010Natur.467...52T }}</ref> Populasi Afrika memiliki jumlah varian genetik pribadi yang paling banyak. Meskipun banyak varian umum yang ditemukan pada populasi di luar Afrika juga ditemukan di benua Afrika, masih ada sejumlah besar varian yang bersifat pribadi di wilayah-wilayah lain tersebut, terutama [[Oseania]] dan [[Amerika (benua)|Amerika]].<ref name="Bergstrom2020" /> Menurut perkiraan tahun 2010, manusia memiliki sekitar 22.000 gen.<ref name=Pertea2010>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pertea M, Salzberg SL | title = Between a chicken and a grape: estimating the number of human genes | journal = Genome Biology | volume = 11 | issue = 5 | page = 206 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20441615 | pmc = 2898077 | doi = 10.1186/gb-2010-11-5-206 }}</ref> Dengan membandingkan [[DNA mitokondria]], yang hanya diwarisi dari ibu, para ahli genetika menyimpulkan bahwa nenek moyang perempuan terakhir yang [[penanda genetik]]nya ditemukan pada semua manusia modern, yang disebut [[Eva mitokondria|Hawa mitokondria]], pasti hidup sekitar 90.000 hingga 200.000 tahun yang lalu.<ref name="pmid3025745">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cann RL, Stoneking M, Wilson AC | title = Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution | journal = Nature | volume = 325 | issue = 6099 | pages = 31–6 | year = 1987 | pmid = 3025745 | doi = 10.1038/325031a0 | bibcode = 1987Natur.325...31C | s2cid = 4285418 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Soares P, Ermini L, Thomson N, Mormina M, Rito T, Röhl A, Salas A, Oppenheimer S, Macaulay V, Richards MB | display-authors = 6 | title = Correcting for purifying selection: an improved human mitochondrial molecular clock | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 84 | issue = 6 | pages = 740–59 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19500773 | pmc = 2694979 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.05.001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.leeds.ac.uk/news/article/245/new_molecular_clock_aids_dating_of_human_migration_history|title=University of Leeds | News > Technology > New 'molecular clock' aids dating of human migration history|date=20 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820230218/https://www.leeds.ac.uk/news/article/245/new_molecular_clock_aids_dating_of_human_migration_history|archive-date=20 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="poz">{{cite journal | vauthors = Poznik GD, Henn BM, Yee MC, Sliwerska E, Euskirchen GM, Lin AA, Snyder M, Quintana-Murci L, Kidd JM, Underhill PA, Bustamante CD | display-authors = 6 | title = Sequencing Y chromosomes resolves discrepancy in time to common ancestor of males versus females | journal = Science | volume = 341 | issue = 6145 | pages = 562–5 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23908239 | pmc = 4032117 | doi = 10.1126/science.1237619 | bibcode = 2013Sci...341..562P }}</ref>
=== Siklus hidup ===
{{See also|Kelahiran anak|Harapan hidup|}}
[[Berkas:Tubal_Pregnancy_with_embryo.jpg|jmpl|[[Embrio]] manusia berusia 5 minggu berukuran 10 mm]]
Sebagian besar [[reproduksi manusia]] terjadi melalui [[pembuahan internal]] melalui [[hubungan seksual]], tetapi juga dapat terjadi melalui prosedur [[teknologi reproduksi bantuan]].<ref name="She2016">{{cite book| vauthors = Shehan CL |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-gSeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA406|title=The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Family Studies, 4 Volume Set|date=2016|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-65845-1|page=406|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910181340/https://books.google.com/books?id=-gSeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA406|archive-date=10 September 2017|url-status=live|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> Masa [[kehamilan]] rata-rata adalah 38 minggu, tetapi kehamilan normal dapat bervariasi hingga 37 hari.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jukic AM, Baird DD, [[Clarice Weinberg|Weinberg CR]], McConnaughey DR, Wilcox AJ | title = Length of human pregnancy and contributors to its natural variation | journal = Human Reproduction | volume = 28 | issue = 10 | pages = 2848–55 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23922246 | pmc = 3777570 | doi = 10.1093/humrep/det297 }}</ref> Perkembangan embrio pada manusia terjadi selama delapan minggu pertama; pada awal minggu kesembilan, embrio disebut sebagai [[janin]].<ref name="nursing">{{cite book | vauthors = Klossner NJ | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=B47OVg25g-QC&q=fetal+stage+begins&pg=PA103 | title = Introductory Maternity Nursing | date = 2005 | page = 103 | quote = The fetal stage is from the beginning of the 9th week after fertilization and continues until birth | isbn = 978-0-7817-6237-3 | access-date = 30 July 2022 | archive-date = 8 April 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220408103945/https://books.google.com/books?id=B47OVg25g-QC&q=fetal+stage+begins&pg=PA103 | url-status = live }}</ref> Manusia dapat mendorong persalinan dini atau melakukan [[operasi caesar]] jika anak perlu dilahirkan lebih awal karena alasan medis.<ref name="WHO2014">{{cite web|author=World Health Organization|date=November 2014|title=Preterm birth Fact sheet N°363|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs363/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307050438/https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs363/en/|archive-date=7 March 2015|access-date=6 March 2015|work=who.int}}</ref> Di negara maju, [[bayi]] biasanya memiliki berat badan 3–4 kg dan tinggi 47–53 cm saat lahir.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kiserud T, Benachi A, Hecher K, Perez RG, Carvalho J, Piaggio G, Platt LD | title = The World Health Organization fetal growth charts: concept, findings, interpretation, and application | journal = American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 218 | issue = 2S | pages = S619–S629 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 29422204 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajog.2017.12.010 | s2cid = 46810955 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=18 March 2019|title=What is the average baby length? Growth chart by month|url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324728|access-date=18 April 2021|website=www.medicalnewstoday.com|language=en|archive-date=27 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127193402/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324728|url-status=live}}</ref> Namun, berat badan bayi lahir yang rendah lazim terjadi di negara-negara berkembang, dan berkontribusi pada tingginya angka [[kematian bayi]] di wilayah tersebut.<ref name="Khor2003">{{cite journal | vauthors = Khor GL | title = Update on the prevalence of malnutrition among children in Asia | journal = Nepal Medical College Journal | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 113–22 | date = December 2003 | pmid = 15024783 }}</ref>
Dibandingkan dengan spesies lain, proses persalinan pada manusia lebih riskan, dengan lebih tingginya risiko komplikasi dan kematian.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Rosenberg KR |date=1992|title=The evolution of modern human childbirth |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|language=en|volume=35|issue=S15|pages=89–124|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330350605|issn=1096-8644}}</ref> Ukuran kepala janin lebih dekat dengan [[panggul]] daripada primata lainnya.<ref name="Pavlicev">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pavličev M, Romero R, Mitteroecker P | title = Evolution of the human pelvis and obstructed labor: new explanations of an old obstetrical dilemma | journal = American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 222 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–16 | date = January 2020 | pmid = 31251927 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajog.2019.06.043 | pmc = 9069416 | s2cid = 195761874 }}</ref> Penyebabnya belum sepenuhnya dipahami,<ref name="Pavlicev" /><ref>{{cite news|title=The real reasons why childbirth is so painful and dangerous| vauthors = Barras C |date=22 December 2016|publisher=BBC}}</ref> tetapi hal ini berkontribusi pada persalinan yang menyakitkan yang dapat berlangsung selama 24 jam atau lebih.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Kantrowitz B | date = 2 July 2007 | title = What Kills One Woman Every Minute of Every Day? | work = [[Newsweek]] | url = https://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19389326/site/newsweek/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070628160443/https://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19389326/site/newsweek/ | archive-date = 28 June 2007 | quote = A woman dies in childbirth every minute, most often due to uncontrolled bleeding and infection, with the world's poorest women most vulnerable. The lifetime risk is 1 in 16 in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], compared to 1 in 2,800 in [[developed countries]]. }}</ref> Selama abad 20 peluang akan suksesnya persalinan meningkat secara signifikan di negara-negara yang lebih makmur dengan munculnya teknologi medis baru. Sebaliknya, kehamilan dan persalinan alami masih menjadi hal yang berisiko tinggi di negara-negara berkembang di dunia, dengan angka kematian ibu sekitar 100 kali lebih besar dibandingkan di negara maju.<ref name="Rush2000">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rush D | title = Nutrition and maternal mortality in the developing world | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 72 | issue = 1 Suppl | pages = 212S–240S | date = July 2000 | pmid = 10871588 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/72.1.212S }}</ref>
Baik ibu maupun ayah manusia sama-sama mengasuh anak mereka, berbeda dengan primata lain yang sebagian besar pengasuhannya dilakukan oleh ibu.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Laland KN, Brown G|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2KcbFVBSxWYC|title=Sense and Nonsense: Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Behaviour|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-958696-7|page=7|language=en|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803081451/https://books.google.com/books?id=2KcbFVBSxWYC|url-status=live}}</ref> Manusia terlahir dalam keadaan tidak berdaya, yang kemudian terus tumbuh selama beberapa tahun, dan mencapai [[kematangan seksual]] umumnya pada usia 15 hingga 17 tahun.<ref name="Kail">{{cite book|vauthors=Kail RV, Cavanaugh JC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E-n5E7oyCgoC&pg=PA296|title=Human Development: A Lifespan View|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-495-60037-4|edition=5th|page=296|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112190914/https://books.google.com/books?id=E-n5E7oyCgoC&pg=PA296|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Schuiling">{{cite book|vauthors=Schuiling KD, Likis FE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QTDFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22|title=Women's Gynecologic Health|publisher=[[Jones & Bartlett Learning]]|year=2016|isbn=978-1-284-12501-6|page=22|quote=The changes that occur during puberty usually happen in an ordered sequence, beginning with thelarche (breast development) at around age 10 or 11, followed by adrenarche (growth of pubic hair due to androgen stimulation), peak height velocity, and finally menarche (the onset of menses), which usually occurs around age 12 or 13.|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=14 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220514171746/https://books.google.com/books?id=QTDFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Phillips">{{cite book|vauthors=Phillips DC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=84StBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|title=Encyclopedia of Educational Theory and Philosophy|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4833-6475-9|pages=18–19|quote=On average, the onset of puberty is about 18 months earlier for girls (usually starting around the age of 10 or 11 and lasting until they are 15 to 17) than for boys (who usually begin puberty at about the age of 11 to 12 and complete it by the age of 16 to 17, on average).|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=25 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425145917/https://books.google.com/books?id=84StBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|url-status=live}}</ref> Rentang hidup manusia telah dibagi menjadi beberapa tahap mulai dari tiga hingga dua belas tahun. Tahapan yang umum meliputi [[masa bayi]], [[masa kanak-kanak]], [[masa remaja]], [[masa dewasa]] dan [[masa tua]].<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Mintz S |date=1993|title=Life stages|journal=Encyclopedia of American Social History|volume=3|pages=7–33}}</ref> Panjangnya tahapan ini bervariasi di berbagai budaya dan periode waktu, tetapi ditandai dengan lonjakan pertumbuhan yang luar biasa cepat selama masa remaja.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Soliman A, De Sanctis V, Elalaily R, Bedair S | title = Advances in pubertal growth and factors influencing it: Can we increase pubertal growth? | journal = Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 18 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S53-62 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25538878 | pmc = 4266869 | doi = 10.4103/2230-8210.145075 }}</ref> Perempuan manusia mengalami [[menopause]] dan menjadi [[Kemandulan|tidak lagi subur]] pada sekitar usia 50 tahun.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Walker ML, Herndon JG | title = Menopause in nonhuman primates? | journal = Biology of Reproduction | volume = 79 | issue = 3 | pages = 398–406 | date = September 2008 | pmid = 18495681 | pmc = 2553520 | doi = 10.1095/biolreprod.108.068536 }}</ref> Terdapat hipotesis yang menyatakan bahwa menopause meningkatkan keberhasilan reproduksi wanita secara keseluruhan dengan memungkinkannya menginvestasikan lebih banyak waktu dan sumber daya untuk keturunannya, dan pada gilirannya anak-anak dari keturunannya ([[hipotesis nenek]]), dibandingkan dengan terus melahirkan anak hingga usia tua.<ref name="Diamond1997">{{cite book | vauthors = Diamond J |author-link=Jared Diamond |title=Why is Sex Fun? The Evolution of Human Sexuality |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York City |year=1997 |pages=167–70 |isbn=978-0-465-03127-6}}</ref><ref name="Peccei2001">{{cite journal | vauthors = Peccei JS |title= Menopause: Adaptation or epiphenomenon? |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=10 |issue=2 |year=2001 |pages=43–57 |doi=10.1002/evan.1013|s2cid=1665503 }}</ref>
Rentang hidup manusia bergantung pada dua faktor utama, yaitu genetika dan pilihan gaya hidup.<ref name="USC">{{cite news | vauthors = Marziali C |date=7 December 2010 |title=Reaching Toward the Fountain of Youth |url=https://uscnews.usc.edu/health/reaching_toward_the_fountain_of_youth.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213203112/https://uscnews.usc.edu/health/reaching_toward_the_fountain_of_youth.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 December 2010 |work=USC Trojan Family Magazine |access-date=7 December 2010}}</ref> Dikarenakan berbagai alasan, termasuk biologis/genetik, wanita hidup rata-rata sekitar empat tahun lebih lama daripada pria.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Kalben BB |title=Why Men Die Younger: Causes of Mortality Differences by Sex |publisher=Society of Actuaries |year=2002 |url=https://www.soa.org/news-and-publications/publications/other-publications/monographs/m-li01-1-toc.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130701185241/https://www.soa.org/news-and-publications/publications/other-publications/monographs/m-li01-1-toc.aspx |archive-date=1 July 2013 }}</ref> Hingga tahun 2018, harapan hidup rata-rata perempuan di seluruh dunia saat lahir diperkirakan mencapai 74,9 tahun dibandingkan dengan 70,4 tahun untuk anak laki-laki.<ref>{{cite web|date=2018|title=Life expectancy at birth, female (years)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.FE.IN|access-date=13 October 2020|website=World Bank|archive-date=24 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124203646/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.FE.IN|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2018|title=Life expectancy at birth, male (years)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.MA.IN|access-date=13 October 2020|website=World Bank|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224133034/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.MA.IN|url-status=live}}</ref> Terdapat variasi geografis yang signifikan dalam harapan hidup manusia, yang sebagian besar berkorelasi dengan perkembangan ekonomi-misalnya, harapan hidup saat lahir di Hong Kong adalah 87,6 tahun untuk anak perempuan dan 81,8 tahun untuk anak laki-laki, sementara di [[Republik Afrika Tengah]], 55,0 tahun untuk anak perempuan dan 50,6 tahun untuk anak laki-laki.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Conceição P, etal | title = Human Development Report | date = 2019 | work = United Nations Development Programme | url = https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf | isbn = 978-92-1-126439-5 | access-date = 30 July 2022 | archive-date = 20 March 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210320094952/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="MLT">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/MLT.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2019|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=22 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422102059/https://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/MLT.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Negara maju umumnya mengalami penuaan, dengan usia rata-rata sekitar 40 tahun. Di [[Dunia Ketiga|negara berkembang]], usia rata-rata adalah antara 15 dan 20 tahun. Sementara satu dari lima orang Eropa berusia 60 tahun atau lebih, hanya satu dari dua puluh orang Afrika yang berusia 60 tahun atau lebih.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ | title = The World Factbook | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090912045414/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ | archive-date = 12 September 2009 | publisher = U.S. Central Intelligence Agency | access-date = 2 April 2005 }}</ref> Pada tahun 2012, Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa memperkirakan ada 316.600 [[Centenarian|manusia berusia seratus tahun atau lebih]] yang masih hidup di seluruh dunia.<ref name="WORLD2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/publications/2012/UNFPA-Report-Chapter1.pdf|title=Chapter 1: Setting the Scene|year=2012|publisher=UNFPA|access-date=11 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612052543/http://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/publications/2012/UNFPA-Report-Chapter1.pdf|archive-date=12 June 2013}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 80%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
|+
! colspan="5" |Tahapan hidup manusia
|-
|[[Berkas:Redheaded_child_mesmerized_2.jpg|pus|103x103px]]
|[[Berkas:Ромський_хлопчик_(Мукачево).jpg|pus|138x138px]]
|[[Berkas:Boy_in_Dar_es_Salaam_(14453809622).jpg|pus|151x151px]]
|[[Berkas:Pataxo001.jpg|pus|148x148px]]
|[[Berkas:An_old_age.JPG|pus|149x149px]]
|-
|[[Berkas:Baby_playing_with_yellow_paint._Work_by_Dutch_artist_Peter_Klashorst_entitled_"Experimental".jpg|pus|150x150px]]
|[[Berkas:Ethnie_dong_6511a.jpg|pus|150x150px]]
|[[Berkas:Portrait_of_a_Persian_lady_in_Iran,_10-08-2006_(cropped).jpg|pus|143x143px]]
|[[Berkas:Punjabi_woman_smile.jpg|pus|146x146px]]
|[[Berkas:HappyPensioneer.jpg|pus|132x132px]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
| style="width: 20%" |[[Bayi]] laki-laki dan perempuan
| style="width: 20%" |Anak laki-laki dan perempuan sebelum [[pubertas]]
| style="width: 20%" |Laki-laki dan perempuan [[remaja]]
| style="width: 20%" |Laki-laki dan perempuan [[dewasa]]
| style="width: 20%" |Laki-laki dan perempuan [[lansia]]
|}
=== Makanan ===
{{Main|Gizi manusia}}
[[Berkas:Preparing_The_Feast.jpg|ka|jmpl|Manusia yang tinggal di [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]], sedang menyiapkan makanan]]
Manusia adalah omnivora, yang mampu mengkonsumsi berbagai macam tumbuhan dan hewan.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haenel H | title = Phylogenesis and nutrition | journal = Die Nahrung | volume = 33 | issue = 9 | pages = 867–87 | year = 1989 | pmid = 2697806 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | veditors = Ungar PS |year=2007 | vauthors = Cordain L |title=Evolution of the human diet: the known, the unknown and the unknowable |chapter=Implications of Plio-pleistocene diets for modern humans |quote=Since the evolutionary split between hominins and [[pongids]] approximately 7 million years ago, the available evidence shows that all species of hominins ate an omnivorous diet composed of minimally processed, wild-plant, and animal foods. |pages=264–65}}</ref> Kelompok-kelompok manusia telah mengadopsi berbagai pola makan dari yang [[vegan|sepenuhnya vegetarian]], hingga [[karnivora]] secara primer. Dalam beberapa kasus, pembatasan pola makan dapat menyebabkan [[penyakit defisiensi]] pada manusia; namun, kelompok manusia stabil telah beradaptasi dengan banyak pola makan melalui spesialisasi genetik dan konvensi budaya untuk menggunakan sumber makanan yang bergizi seimbang.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets | journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association | volume = 103 | issue = 6 | pages = 748–65 | date = June 2003 | pmid = 12778049 | doi = 10.1053/jada.2003.50142 | author1 = American Dietetic Association }}</ref> Pola makan manusia tercermin secara mencolok dalam budaya manusia dan telah mengarah pada pengembangan [[ilmu pangan]].<ref name=":13">{{cite journal| vauthors = Crittenden AN, Schnorr SL |date=2017|title=Current views on hunter-gatherer nutrition and the evolution of the human diet |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=162 |issue=S63 |pages=84–109 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.23148 |pmid=28105723}}</ref>
Hingga perkembangan pertanian sekitar 10.000 tahun yang lalu, ''Homo sapiens'' menggunakan metode beburu-mengumpulkan sebagai satu-satunya cara mereka mengumpulkan makanan.<ref name=":13" /> Cara ini melibatkan kombinasi sumber makanan yang tidak bergerak (seperti buah-buahan, biji-bijian, umbi-umbian, jamur, larva serangga, dan moluska air) dengan hewan liar, yang harus diburu dan ditangkap untuk disantap.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cordain L, Eaton SB, Sebastian A, Mann N, Lindeberg S, Watkins BA, O'Keefe JH, Brand-Miller J | display-authors = 6 | title = Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-clinical-nutrition_2005-02_81_2/page/341 | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 81 | issue = 2 | pages = 341–54 | date = February 2005 | pmid = 15699220 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn.81.2.341 | name-list-style = vanc | doi-access = free }}</ref> Diperkirakan bahwa manusia telah menggunakan api untuk menyiapkan dan [[memasak]] makanan sejak zaman ''[[Homo erectus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ulijaszek SJ | title = Human eating behaviour in an evolutionary ecological context | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-nutrition-society_2002-11_61_4/page/517 | journal = The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society | volume = 61 | issue = 4 | pages = 517–26 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12691181 | doi = 10.1079/PNS2002180 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Sekitar sepuluh ribu tahun yang lalu, [[sejarah pertanian|manusia mengembangkan pertanian]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harrington SP | title = Earliest Agriculture in the New World | journal = Archaeology Newsbriefs | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | date = July–August 1997 | url = https://www.archaeology.org/9707/newsbriefs/squash.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100603232246/https://www.archaeology.org/9707/newsbriefs/squash.html | archive-date = 3 June 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Balter M | title = Double Cropping the Earliest Agriculture | work = ScienceNOW Daily News | publisher = American Association for the Advancement of Science | date = 13 February 2007 | url = https://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2007/213/2 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070216093200/https://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2007/213/2 | archive-date=16 February 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last = Morelle | first=Rebecca | author-link=Rebecca Morelle | date = 2 June 2006 | work = BBC News | title = Ancient fig clue to first farming | url = https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5038116.stm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060602081110/https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5038116.stm | archive-date=2 June 2006 | access-date = 19 February 2007 |name-list-style=vanc }}</ref> yang secara substansial mengubah pola makan mereka. Perubahan pola makan ini bisa jadi juga telah mengubah biologi manusia; dengan menyebarnya [[peternakan sapi perah]] yang menyediakan sumber makanan baru dan berlimpah, yang mengarah pada evolusi kemampuan mencerna [[laktosa]] pada sebagian orang dewasa.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Krebs JR | title = The gourmet ape: evolution and human food preferences | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 90 | issue = 3 | pages = 707S–711S | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19656837 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.2009.27462B | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Holden C, Mace R | title = Phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of lactose digestion in adults | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_human-biology_1997-10_69_5/page/605 | journal = Human Biology | volume = 69 | issue = 5 | pages = 605–28 | date = October 1997 | pmid = 9299882 }}</ref> Jenis makanan yang dikonsumsi, dan bagaimana makanan tersebut disiapkan, sangat bervariasi menurut waktu, lokasi, dan budaya.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Gibbons A|title=The Evolution of Diet|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/foodfeatures/evolution-of-diet/|access-date=18 April 2021|website=National Geographic|archive-date=18 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140818204010/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/foodfeatures/evolution-of-diet/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Ritchie H, Roser M|date=20 August 2017|title=Diet Compositions|url=https://ourworldindata.org/diet-compositions|journal=Our World in Data|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=25 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825210934/https://ourworldindata.org/diet-compositions|url-status=live}}</ref>
Secara umum, manusia, dapat bertahan hidup hingga delapan minggu tanpa makanan, tergantung pada lemak tubuh yang tersimpan.<ref>{{cite web|date=2004|title=How Long Can a Person Survive without Food?|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-long-can-a-person-survive-without-food/|website=Scientific American|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214012729/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-long-can-a-person-survive-without-food/|archive-date=14 February 2019|access-date=18 April 2021|vauthors=Lieberson AD|url-status=live}}</ref> Sedangkan tanpa air, manusia biasanya hanya dapat bertahan hidup maksimum selama satu minggu.<ref>{{cite web|date=9 March 2018|title=Here's how many days a person can survive without water|url=https://www.businessinsider.com.au/how-many-days-can-you-survive-without-water-2014-5|website=Business Insider Australia|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626030756/https://www.businessinsider.com.au/how-many-days-can-you-survive-without-water-2014-5|archive-date=26 June 2014|access-date=18 April 2021|vauthors=Spector D|url-status=live}}</ref> Pada tahun 2020 diperkirakan 9 juta manusia meninggal setiap tahun disebabkan oleh [[kelaparan]], baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung.<ref>{{cite web|title=Losing 25,000 to Hunger Every Day|url=https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/losing-25000-hunger-every-day|website=United Nations|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527235650/https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/losing-25000-hunger-every-day|archive-date=27 May 2020|access-date=18 April 2021|vauthors=Holmes J|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2020|title=U.N. Warns Number Of People Starving To Death Could Double Amid Pandemic|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/05/05/850470436/u-n-warns-number-of-people-starving-to-death-could-double-amid-pandemic|website=NPR.org|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628090826/https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/05/05/850470436/u-n-warns-number-of-people-starving-to-death-could-double-amid-pandemic|archive-date=28 June 2021|access-date=18 April 2021|vauthors=Mai HJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Malnutrisi pada anak juga banyak terjadi dan berkontribusi terhadap [[beban penyakit|beban penyakit global]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=May 1997|title=Global mortality, disability, and the contribution of risk factors: Global Burden of Disease Study|journal=Lancet|volume=349|issue=9063|pages=1436–42|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(96)07495-8|pmid=9164317|vauthors=Murray CJ, Lopez AD|s2cid=2569153}}</ref> Akan tetapi, distribusi makanan tidaklah merata secara global, dan beberapa populasi manusia ada yang mengalami [[obesitas]] dan hal ini telah meningkat dengan cepat. Obesitas disebabkan oleh konsumsi kalori yang lebih banyak daripada yang dibakar dan dikeluarkan.<ref name="Haslam">{{cite journal|date=October 2005|title=Obesity|journal=Lancet|volume=366|issue=9492|pages=1197–209|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67483-1|pmid=16198769|vauthors=Haslam DW, James WP|s2cid=208791491}}</ref> Hal ini menyebabkan komplikasi kesehatan dan peningkatan angka kematian di sejumlah [[negara maju]] dan sebagian kecil [[negara berkembang]]. Di seluruh dunia, lebih dari satu miliar orang mengalami obesitas,<ref name="Haslam" /> sementara di Amerika Serikat sendiri, 35% orang mengalami obesitas, yang menyebabkan peristiwa ini dinamai di sana sebagai “[[epidemiologi obesitas|pandemi obesitas]]”.<ref name="Catenacci">{{cite journal|date=September 2009|title=The obesity epidemic|journal=Clinics in Chest Medicine|volume=30|issue=3|pages=415–44, vii|doi=10.1016/j.ccm.2009.05.001|pmid=19700042|vauthors=Catenacci VA, Hill JO, Wyatt HR}}</ref>
===
{{Main|Variasi genetika manusia}}
[[Berkas:Genetic_Variation.jpg|jmpl|Perubahan jumlah dan urutan gen (A-D) menciptakan keragaman genetik di dalam dan di antara populasi.]]
Terdapat variasi biologis pada spesies manusia, seperti pada [[golongan darah]], [[penyakit genetik]], [[tengkorak manusia|ciri-ciri tengkorak]], [[wajah manusia|ciri-ciri wajah]], [[sistem organ]] tubuh, [[warna mata]], [[warna rambut|warna]] dan [[tekstur rambut]], [[tinggi manusia|tinggi badan]], dan [[warna kulit manusia|warna kulit]] yang bervariasi di seluruh dunia. Tinggi badan manusia dewasa pada umumnya adalah antara 140 hingga 190 cm, meskipun hal ini sangat bervariasi tergantung pada jenis kelamin, [[asal etnis]], dan garis keturunan keluarga.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = de Beer H | title = Observations on the history of Dutch physical stature from the late-Middle Ages to the present | journal = Economics and Human Biology | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 45–55 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 15463992 | doi = 10.1016/j.ehb.2003.11.001 }}</ref><ref name="adapt2">{{cite web | vauthors = O'Neil D |title=Adapting to Climate Extremes |url=https://anthro.palomar.edu/adapt/adapt_2.htm |work=Human Biological Adaptability |publisher=Palomar College |access-date=6 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130106211840/https://anthro.palomar.edu/adapt/adapt_2.htm |archive-date=6 January 2013 }}</ref> Ukuran tubuh sebagian ditentukan oleh gen dan juga secara signifikan dipengaruhi oleh faktor lingkungan seperti [[pola makan]], olahraga, dan [[pola tidur]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rask-Andersen M, Karlsson T, Ek WE, Johansson Å | title = Gene-environment interaction study for BMI reveals interactions between genetic factors and physical activity, alcohol consumption and socioeconomic status | journal = PLOS Genetics | volume = 13 | issue = 9 | pages = e1006977 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28873402 | pmc = 5600404 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006977 }}</ref>
Berdasarkan bukti yang ada, terdapat populasi-populasi yang telah beradaptasi secara genetik terhadap berbagai faktor eksternal. Gen yang memungkinkan manusia dewasa mencerna [[laktosa]] berada dalam frekuensi tinggi pada populasi yang memiliki sejarah panjang domestikasi sapi dan memiliki ketergantungan pada [[susu sapi]] yang lebih tinggi.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Beja-Pereira A, Luikart G, England PR, Bradley DG, Jann OC, Bertorelle G, Chamberlain AT, Nunes TP, Metodiev S, Ferrand N, Erhardt G | display-authors = 6 | title = Gene-culture coevolution between cattle milk protein genes and human lactase genes | journal = Nature Genetics | volume = 35 | issue = 4 | pages = 311–3 | date = December 2003 | pmid = 14634648 | doi = 10.1038/ng1263 | s2cid = 20415396 }}</ref> [[Anemia sel sabit]], yang dapat meningkatkan resistensi terhadap [[malaria]], sering dijumpai pada populasi di tempat malaria menjadi [[Endemisme|endemik]].<ref name="Hedrick 2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hedrick PW | title = Population genetics of malaria resistance in humans | journal = Heredity | volume = 107 | issue = 4 | pages = 283–304 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21427751 | pmc = 3182497 | doi = 10.1038/hdy.2011.16 }}</ref><ref name="Weatherall 2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Weatherall DJ | title = Genetic variation and susceptibility to infection: the red cell and malaria | journal = British Journal of Haematology | volume = 141 | issue = 3 | pages = 276–86 | date = May 2008 | pmid = 18410566 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2141.2008.07085.x | s2cid = 28191911 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Populasi yang telah lama mendiami iklim tertentu cenderung mengembangkan fenotipe spesifik yang bermanfaat untuk keberlangsungan hidup di lingkungan tersebut, seperti perawakan pendek dan kekar di populasi daerah dingin, tinggi dan kurus di populasi daerah panas, serta kapasitas paru-paru yang besar atau adaptasi lainnya di populasi dataran tinggi.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Shelomi M, Zeuss D |date=5 April 2017|title=Bergmann's and Allen's Rules in Native European and Mediterranean Phasmatodea |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution|volume=5|doi=10.3389/fevo.2017.00025|s2cid=34882477|issn=2296-701X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Beberapa populasi lainnya telah mengembangkan adaptasi yang sangat unik terhadap kondisi lingkungan yang sangat spesifik, seperti adaptasi yang menguntungkan bagi masyarakat yang gaya hidupnya menghabiskan banyak waktunya di laut dan kerap melakukan [[selam bebas]], seperti pada populasi di [[Suku Bajau|Bajau]].<ref name="Ilardo2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ilardo MA, Moltke I, Korneliussen TS, Cheng J, Stern AJ, Racimo F, de Barros Damgaard P, Sikora M, Seguin-Orlando A, Rasmussen S, van den Munckhof IC, Ter Horst R, Joosten LA, Netea MG, Salingkat S, Nielsen R, Willerslev E | display-authors = 6 | title = Physiological and Genetic Adaptations to Diving in Sea Nomads | journal = Cell | volume = 173 | issue = 3 | pages = 569–580.e15 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29677510 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.054 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Warna rambut manusia berkisar dari [[rambut merah|merah]] ke [[pirang]] hingga [[rambut cokelat|cokelat]] ke [[rambut hitam|hitam]], yang mana adalah yang paling banyak.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Rogers AR, Iltis D, Wooding S|year=2004|title=Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_current-anthropology_2004-02_45_1/page/105|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=45|issue=1|pages=105–08|doi=10.1086/381006|s2cid=224795768}}</ref> Warna rambut tergantung pada jumlah [[melanin]], yang konsentrasinya akan menurun seiring bertambahnya usia. Penurunan konsentrasi melanin ini pada akhirnya menyebabkan rambut [[rambut abu-abu|beruban]] atau menjadi putih sepenuhnya. Warna kulit dapat berkisar dari [[kulit gelap|cokelat paling gelap]] hingga [[Kuning blewah|warna persik]] paling terang, atau bahkan hampir putih atau tidak berwarna dalam kasus [[albinisme]].<ref name="roberts1">{{cite book| vauthors = Roberts D |title=Fatal Invention| url = https://archive.org/details/fatalinventionho0000robe |publisher=The New Press|year=2011|location=London, New York}}</ref> Warna kulit cenderung bervariasi secara klinis dan umumnya berkorelasi dengan tingkat radiasi ultraviolet di wilayah geografis tertentu, dengan kulit yang lebih gelap sebagian besar berada di sekitar khatulistiwa.<ref name="jabl04">{{cite journal|vauthors=Nina J|year=2004|title=The evolution of human skin and skin color|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|volume=33|pages=585–623|doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143955}}</ref> Evolusi penggelapan kulit mungkin terjadi sebagai bentuk perlindungan terhadap sengatan [[sinar matahari]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jablonski NG, Chaplin G | title = Colloquium paper: human skin pigmentation as an adaptation to UV radiation | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 107 | issue = Supplement_2 | pages = 8962–8 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20445093 | pmc = 3024016 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0914628107 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.8962J | doi-access = free }}</ref> Sedangkan pigmentasi kulit cerah bertujuan untuk melindungi kulit dari kerusakan akibat kekurangan [[vitamin D]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jablonski NG, Chaplin G | title = The evolution of human skin coloration | journal = Journal of Human Evolution | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 57–106 | date = July 2000 | pmid = 10896812 | doi = 10.1006/jhev.2000.0403 | url = https://www.bgsu.edu/departments/chem/faculty/leontis/chem447/PDF_files/Jablonski_skin_color_2000.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120114203210/https://www.bgsu.edu/departments/chem/faculty/leontis/chem447/PDF_files/Jablonski_skin_color_2000.pdf | archive-date = 14 January 2012 }}</ref> Kulit manusia juga memiliki kemampuan untuk menggelap sebagai respons terhadap paparan radiasi ultraviolet.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harding RM, Healy E, Ray AJ, Ellis NS, Flanagan N, Todd C, Dixon C, Sajantila A, Jackson IJ, Birch-Machin MA, Rees JL | display-authors = 6 | title = Evidence for variable selective pressures at MC1R | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 66 | issue = 4 | pages = 1351–61 | date = April 2000 | pmid = 10733465 | pmc = 1288200 | doi = 10.1086/302863 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Robin A | date = 1991 | title = Biological Perspectives on Human Pigmentation | location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press }}</ref>
[[Berkas:Seti1a.jpg|jmpl|Lukisan mural pada makam [[Seti I]] oleh pelukis tak dikenal, menggambarkan dari kiri ke kanan orang [[Libya]], orang [[Nubia]], orang [[Syam|Suriah]], dan orang [[Mesir Kuno|Mesir]].]]Penelitian genetik telah menunjukkan bahwa populasi manusia yang berasal dari benua Afrika adalah yang paling beragam secara genetik<ref name="Jorde2000">{{cite journal|date=March 2000|title=The distribution of human genetic diversity: a comparison of mitochondrial, autosomal, and Y-chromosome data|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=66|issue=3|pages=979–88|doi=10.1086/302825|pmc=1288178|pmid=10712212|vauthors=Jorde LB, Watkins WS, Bamshad MJ, Dixon ME, Ricker CE, Seielstad MT, Batzer MA}}</ref> dan keragaman genetik menurun seiring dengan jarak migrasi dari Afrika, kemungkinan disebabkan oleh hambatan selama migrasi manusia.<ref name="sciencedaily.com">{{cite web|date=19 July 2007|title=New Research Proves Single Origin Of Humans In Africa|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/07/070718140829.htm|website=[[Science Daily]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104103559/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/07/070718140829.htm|archive-date=4 November 2011|access-date=5 September 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author-link3=Francois Balloux|date=July 2007|title=The effect of ancient population bottlenecks on human phenotypic variation|journal=Nature|volume=448|issue=7151|pages=346–348|bibcode=2007Natur.448..346M|doi=10.1038/nature05951|pmc=1978547|pmid=17637668|vauthors=Manica A, Amos W, Balloux F, Hanihara T}}</ref> Populasi non-Afrika ini memperoleh masukan genetik baru dari percampuran dengan populasi purba setempat dan memiliki tingkat keragaman genetik Neanderthal dan Denisova yang jauh lebih tinggi daripada yang ditemukan di Afrika.<ref name="Bergstrom20202">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=March 2020|title=Insights into human genetic variation and population history from 929 diverse genomes|journal=Science|volume=367|issue=6484|pages=eaay5012|doi=10.1126/science.aay5012|pmc=7115999|pmid=32193295|quote=Populations in central and southern Africa, the Americas, and Oceania each harbor tens to hundreds of thousands of ''private'', common genetic variants. Most of these variants arose as new mutations rather than through archaic introgression, except in Oceanian populations, where many private variants derive from Denisovan admixture.|vauthors=Bergström A, McCarthy SA, Hui R, Almarri MA, Ayub Q, Danecek P, Chen Y, Felkel S, Hallast P, Kamm J, Blanché H, Deleuze JF, Cann H, Mallick S, Reich D, Sandhu MS, Skoglund P, Scally A, Xue Y, Durbin R, Tyler-Smith C}}</ref> Selain itu, penelitian terbaru menemukan bahwa masyarakat di [[sub-Sahara Afrika]], khususnya [[Afrika Barat]], memiliki keragaman genetik leluhur yang tidak ditemukan pada sebagian besar masyarakat non-Afrika. Sebagian dari leluhur ini diperkirakan berasal dari percampuran dengan hominin purba yang tidak diketahui yang berbeda sebelum perpecahan Neanderthal dan manusia modern.<ref name="Bergstrom2020a">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=March 2020|title=Insights into human genetic variation and population history from 929 diverse genomes|journal=Science|volume=367|issue=6484|pages=eaay5012|doi=10.1126/science.aay5012|pmc=7115999|pmid=32193295|quote=An analysis of archaic sequences in modern populations identifies ancestral genetic variation in African populations that likely predates modern humans and has been lost in most non-African populations.|vauthors=Bergström A, McCarthy SA, Hui R, Almarri MA, Ayub Q, Danecek P, Chen Y, Felkel S, Hallast P, Kamm J, Blanché H, Deleuze JF, Cann H, Mallick S, Reich D, Sandhu MS, Skoglund P, Scally A, Xue Y, Durbin R, Tyler-Smith C}}</ref><ref name="Durvasula2020">{{cite journal|date=February 2020|title=Recovering signals of ghost archaic introgression in African populations|journal=Science Advances|volume=6|issue=7|pages=eaax5097|bibcode=2020SciA....6.5097D|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aax5097|pmc=7015685|pmid=32095519|quote=Our analyses of site frequency spectra indicate that these populations derive 2 to 19% of their genetic ancestry from an archaic population that diverged before the split of Neanderthals and modern humans.|vauthors=Durvasula A, Sankararaman S}}</ref>
Manusia adalah spesies [[Gonokorisme|gonokorik]], yang berarti mereka terbagi menjadi [[jenis kelamin]] laki-laki dan perempuan.<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Pierce BA|date=2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4pXRaZAkdkC&q=humans+are+dioecious+genetics&pg=PA75|title=Genetics: A Conceptual Approach|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4292-3252-4|pages=75|language=en|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428134059/https://books.google.com/books?id=z4pXRaZAkdkC&q=humans+are+dioecious+genetics&pg=PA75|archive-date=28 April 2022|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Muehlenbein MP|date=29 July 2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VXX1jkhPH8C&q=humans+are+dioecious+biology&pg=PT57|title=Human Evolutionary Biology|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87948-4|veditors=Jones J|page=74|language=en|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419035329/https://books.google.com/books?id=1VXX1jkhPH8C&q=humans+are+dioecious+biology&pg=PT57|archive-date=19 April 2022|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Fusco G, Minelli A|date=10 October 2019|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AKGsDwAAQBAJ&q=homo+sapiens+gonochoric&pg=PA304|title=The Biology of Reproduction|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-49985-9|page=304|language=en|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409093950/https://books.google.com/books?id=AKGsDwAAQBAJ&q=homo+sapiens+gonochoric&pg=PA304|archive-date=9 April 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Tingkat variasi genetik terbesar manusia ada di antara laki-laki dan perempuan. Meskipun variasi genetik nukleotida individu dengan jenis kelamin yang sama di seluruh populasi global tidak lebih besar dari 0,1%-0,5%, perbedaan genetik antara pria dan wanita adalah antara 1% dan 2%. Laki-laki rata-rata 15% lebih berat dan 15 cm lebih tinggi dari perempuan.<ref name="Gustafsson">{{cite journal|date=October 2004|title=Human size evolution: no evolutionary allometric relationship between male and female stature|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=47|issue=4|pages=253–66|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.07.004|pmid=15454336|vauthors=Gustafsson A, Lindenfors P}}</ref><ref name="NHANES_III_data">{{cite journal|date=October 2004|title=Mean body weight, height, and body mass index, United States 1960–2002|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ad/ad347.pdf|journal=Advance Data|volume=|issue=347|pages=1–17|doi=|pmid=15544194|archive-url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110223153209/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ad/ad347.pdf|archive-date=23 February 2011|vauthors=Ogden CL, Fryar CD, Carroll MD, Flegal KM}}</ref> Rata-rata, bila dibandingkan dengan perempuan dengan berat badan yang sama, laki-laki memiliki kekuatan tubuh bagian atas sekitar 40-50% lebih besar dan kekuatan tubuh bagian bawah 20-30% lebih besar, hal ini dikarenakan jumlah otot laki-laki yang lebih banyak dan serat otot yang lebih besar.<ref>{{cite journal|year=1993|title=Gender differences in strength and muscle fiber characteristics|journal=European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology|volume=66|issue=3|pages=254–62|doi=10.1007/BF00235103|pmid=8477683|vauthors=Miller AE, MacDougall JD, Tarnopolsky MA, Sale DG|hdl-access=free|s2cid=206772211|hdl=11375/22586}}</ref> Wanita umumnya memiliki persentase lemak tubuh yang lebih tinggi daripada pria.<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Bredella MA|date=2017|title=Sex and Gender Factors Affecting Metabolic Homeostasis, Diabetes and Obesity|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-70177-6|veditors=Mauvais-Jarvis F|series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=1043|pages=9–27|chapter=Sex Differences in Body Composition|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-70178-3_2|pmid=29224088}}</ref> Wanita memiliki kulit yang lebih terang daripada pria pada populasi yang sama; hal ini disebabkan oleh kebutuhan vitamin D yang lebih tinggi pada wanita selama kehamilan dan menyusui.<ref>{{cite journal|date=September 2018|title=Male versus female skin: What dermatologists and cosmeticians should know|journal=International Journal of Women's Dermatology|volume=4|issue=3|pages=122–130|doi=10.1016/j.ijwd.2018.03.002|pmc=6116811|pmid=30175213|vauthors=Rahrovan S, Fanian F, Mehryan P, Humbert P, Firooz A}}</ref> Karena ada perbedaan kromosom antara wanita dan pria, beberapa kondisi dan kelainan yang berhubungan dengan kromosom X dan Y hanya mempengaruhi pria atau wanita.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sex Linked|url=https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Sex-Linked|website=National Human Genome Research Institute|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414183337/https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Sex-Linked|archive-date=14 April 2022|access-date=18 April 2021|vauthors=Easter C|url-status=live}}</ref> Dengan mempertimbangkan berat badan dan volume, suara pria biasanya satu [[oktaf]] lebih dalam daripada suara wanita.<ref>{{cite journal|date=July 2006|title=Dominance and the evolution of sexual dimorphism in human voice pitch.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_evolution-and-human-behavior_2006-07_27_4/page/283|journal=Evolution and Human Behavior|volume=27|issue=4|pages=283–96|doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.11.003|vauthors=Puts DA, Gaulin SJ, Verdolini K}}</ref> Wanita memiliki rentang hidup yang lebih panjang di hampir setiap populasi di seluruh dunia.<ref name="WHO">{{cite web|title=Gender, women, and health|url=https://www.who.int/gender/documents/en/|work=Reports from WHO 2002–2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625083240/https://www.who.int/gender/documents/en/|archive-date=25 June 2013}}</ref>
== Psikologi ==
{{Main|Psikologi}}
[[Berkas:NIA_human_brain_drawing.jpg|jmpl|Sketsa [[otak manusia]], menunjukkan beberapa struktur penting]]
[[Otak manusia]], yang merupakan titik fokus dari [[sistem saraf pusat]] pada manusia, berfungsi untuk mengendalikan [[sistem saraf tepi]]. Disamping mengendalikan aktivitas yang "lebih rendah", tidak disengaja, atau utamanya aktivitas otonom seperti pernapasan dan pencernaan, otak juga merupakan pusat dari fungsi yang "lebih tinggi" seperti pemikiran, penalaran, dan abstraksi.<ref>{{cite web|title=3-D Brain Anatomy|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/3d/index.html|work=The Secret Life of the Brain|publisher=Public Broadcasting Service|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905064816/https://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/3d/index.html|archive-date=5 September 2017|access-date=3 April 2005}}</ref> Proses-proses kognitif ini membentuk akal pikiran, dan, bersama dengan konsekuensi perilakunya, dipelajari dalam bidang [[psikologi]].
Manusia memiliki [[korteks prefrontal]] yang lebih besar dan lebih berkembang daripada primata lainnya. Wilayah otak ini berkaitan dengan [[kognisi]] yang lebih tinggi.<ref>{{cite journal|date=22 June 2018|title=The human prefrontal cortex is special|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.2018.360.6395.twil|journal=Science|language=en|volume=360|issue=6395|pages=1311–1312|bibcode=2018Sci...360S1311S|doi=10.1126/science.360.6395.1311-g|issn=0036-8075|vauthors=Stern P|s2cid=149581944}}</ref> Hal ini membuat manusia menyatakan diri mereka sebagai makhluk yang lebih [[Kecerdasan intelektual|cerdas]] daripada spesies lain yang diketahui.<ref>{{cite journal|date=22 September 2014|title=Are Humans the Most Intelligent Species?|journal=Journal of Intelligence|language=en|volume=2|issue=3|pages=119–121|doi=10.3390/jintelligence2030119|issn=2079-3200|vauthors=Erickson R|doi-access=free}}</ref> Mendefinisikan kecerdasan secara objektif adalah hal yang sulit, karena binatang-binatang lain memiliki adaptasi indera dan keunggulan di bidang-bidang yang tidak dikuasai oleh manusia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Humans not smarter than animals, just different, experts say|url=https://phys.org/news/2013-12-humans-smarter-animals-experts.html|website=phys.org|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130063650/https://phys.org/news/2013-12-humans-smarter-animals-experts.html|archive-date=30 January 2021|access-date=24 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>
Terdapat beberapa sifat yang, meskipun tidak sepenuhnya unik, namun membedakan manusia dengan hewan lainnya.<ref>{{cite web|title=We've got human intelligence all wrong|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20161108-weve-got-human-intelligence-all-wrong|website=www.bbc.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131122837/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20161108-weve-got-human-intelligence-all-wrong|archive-date=31 January 2021|access-date=24 October 2020|vauthors=Robson D|url-status=live}}</ref> Manusia mungkin satu-satunya hewan yang memiliki ingatan episodik dan dapat melakukan "perjalanan waktu pikiran".<ref>{{cite news|date=26 February 2015|title=Many Animals—Including Your Dog—May Have Horrible Short-Term Memories|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/150225-dogs-memories-animals-chimpanzees-science-mind-psychology|work=National Geographic News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419150625/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/150225-dogs-memories-animals-chimpanzees-science-mind-psychology|archive-date=19 April 2021|access-date=6 September 2020|vauthors=Owen J|url-status=live}}</ref> Bahkan dibandingkan dengan hewan sosial lainnya, manusia memiliki tingkat fleksibilitas wajah yang luar biasa tinggi.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2001|title=Human facial expressions as adaptations: Evolutionary questions in facial expression research|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=116|issue=S33|pages=3–24|doi=10.1002/ajpa.20001|pmc=2238342|pmid=11786989|vauthors=Schmidt KL, Cohn JF}}</ref> Manusia adalah satu-satunya hewan yang diketahui dapat menangis secara emosional.<ref>{{cite news|date=5 January 2011|title=Tears in Her Eyes: A Turnoff for Guys?|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/MindMoodNews/womens-tears-chemical-turnoff-men/story?id=12540975|work=ABC News (American)|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130050944/https://abcnews.go.com/Health/MindMoodNews/womens-tears-chemical-turnoff-men/story?id=12540975|archive-date=30 January 2021|access-date=22 April 2020|vauthors=Moisse K|url-status=live}}</ref> Manusia adalah salah satu dari sedikit hewan yang mampu mengenali diri sendiri dalam [[Uji cermin|tes cermin]],<ref>{{cite news|date=2018|title=The 'me' illusion: How your brain conjures up your sense of self|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23931940-100-the-me-illusion-how-your-brain-conjures-up-your-sense-of-self/|work=New Scientist|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218175649/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23931940-100-the-me-illusion-how-your-brain-conjures-up-your-sense-of-self/|archive-date=18 February 2021|access-date=22 April 2020|vauthors=Deleniv S|url-status=live}}</ref> dan terdapat pula perdebatan mengenai sejauh mana manusia adalah satu-satunya hewan yang memiliki teori pikiran.<ref>{{cite news|date=2019|title=Can We Really Know What Animals Are Thinking?|url=https://www.snopes.com/news/2019/09/07/can-we-really-know-what-animals-are-thinking/|work=Snopes|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031062624/https://www.snopes.com/news/2019/09/07/can-we-really-know-what-animals-are-thinking/|archive-date=31 October 2021|access-date=22 April 2020|vauthors=Beck J|url-status=live}}</ref>
===
{{Main|Tidur|Mimpi}}
Manusia pada umumnya adalah makhluk [[Diurnalitas|diurnal]]. Kebutuhan tidur mereka rata-rata adalah antara tujuh hingga sembilan jam per hari untuk usia dewasa, dan sembilan hingga sepuluh jam per hari untuk anak-anak; orang lanjut usia biasanya tidur selama enam hingga tujuh jam. Namun, waktu tidur yang kurang dari angka tersebut merupakan hal yang cukup umum terjadi di antara manusia, meskipun [[Kurang tidur|kurangnya tidur]] dapat berdampak negatif pada kesehatan. Orang dewasa yang membatasi waktu tidurnya hingga empat jam per hari telah menunjukkan korelasi dengan perubahan fisiologi dan kondisi mental, termasuk berkurangnya daya ingat, kelelahan, agresi, dan ketidaknyamanan tubuh.<ref name="Grandner2010">{{cite journal|date=August 2010|title=Problems associated with short sleep: bridging the gap between laboratory and epidemiological studies|journal=Sleep Medicine Reviews|volume=14|issue=4|pages=239–47|doi=10.1016/j.smrv.2009.08.001|pmc=2888649|pmid=19896872|vauthors=Grandner MA, Patel NP, Gehrman PR, Perlis ML, Pack AI}}</ref>
Selama tidur manusia bermimpi, di mana mereka merasakan pengalaman sensorik berupa gambar dan suara. Mimpi dirangsang oleh otak kecil dan sebagian besar terjadi selama [[Tidur REM|fase tidur REM]].<ref>{{cite web|date=27 January 2005|title=HowStuffWorks "Dreams: Stages of Sleep"|url=https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/human-biology/dream2.htm|publisher=Science.howstuffworks.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515212353/https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/human-biology/dream2.htm|archive-date=15 May 2012|access-date=11 August 2012|vauthors=Ann L|url-status=dead}}</ref> Lamanya mimpi dapat bervariasi, dari beberapa detik hingga 30 menit.<ref name="Hobson">{{cite journal|date=November 2009|title=REM sleep and dreaming: towards a theory of protoconsciousness|journal=Nature Reviews. Neuroscience|volume=10|issue=11|pages=803–13|doi=10.1038/nrn2716|pmid=19794431|vauthors=Hobson JA|s2cid=205505278}}</ref> Manusia mengalami tiga hingga lima mimpi per malam, dan beberapa orang mungkin mengalami hingga tujuh mimpi;<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Empson J|date=2002|title=Sleep and dreaming|url=https://archive.org/details/sleepdreaming0000emps_x5m8|location=New York|publisher=Palgrave/St. Martin's Press|edition=3rd}}</ref> namun sebagian besar mimpi dengan cepat terlupakan. Manusia lebih cenderung mengingat mimpi jika terbangun selama fase REM. Kejadian dalam mimpi umumnya berada di luar kendali si pemimpi, dengan pengecualian pada mimpi jernih, di mana si pemimpi sadar akan dirinya sendiri.<ref>{{cite web|date=29 July 2010|title=How Can You Control Your Dreams?|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-to-control-dreams/|website=Scientific America|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202070145/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-to-control-dreams/|archive-date=2 February 2015|vauthors=Lite J|url-status=live}}</ref> Mimpi terkadang dapat membuat sebuah pemikiran kreatif muncul atau memberikan inspirasi.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Domhoff W|date=2002|title=The scientific study of dreams|publisher=APA Press}}</ref>
===
Kewaspadaan, atau kepekaan akan keberadaan internal atau eksternal, adalah definisi paling sederhana dari kesadaran manusia.<ref name="consciousness">{{cite dictionary|title=Consciousness|dictionary=Merriam-Webster|access-date=4 June 2012|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consciousness|archive-date=7 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907122314/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consciousness|url-status=live}}</ref> Kesadaran dianggap sebagai "aspek yang paling dikenal sekaligus paling misterius dalam hidup kita".<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Schneider S, Velmans M|year=2008|title=The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-75145-9|veditors=Velmans M, Schneider S|chapter=Introduction|author2-link=Max Velmans}}</ref> Meskipun telah berabad-abad dilakukan analisis, definisi, penjelasan, dan perdebatan oleh para filsuf dan ilmuwan, kesadaran tetaplah sesuatu yang membingungkan dan kontroversial.<ref name="van_Gulick2004">{{cite encyclopedia|vauthors=van Gulick R|year=2004|title=Consciousness|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness/|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=14 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014065308/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness/|url-status=live}}</ref> Satu-satunya pandangan yang disepakati secara luas tentang topik ini adalah keyakinan bahwa kesadaran itu ada.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Searle J|year=2005|title=The Oxford companion to philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse_f5n3|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-926479-7|veditors=Honderich T|chapter=Consciousness|author-link=John Searle}}</ref> Terdapat perbedaan pendapat mengenai apa sebenarnya yang perlu dipelajari dan dijelaskan sebagai kesadaran. Beberapa filsuf membagi kesadaran menjadi kesadaran fenomenal dan kesadaran akses. Kesadaran fenomenal adalah pengalaman inderawi itu sendiri, sedangkan kesadaran akses adalah kesadaran yang dapat digunakan untuk bernalar atau mengendalikan tindakan secara langsung.<ref name="Bl">{{cite journal|date=June 1995|title=On a confusion about a function of consciousness.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_behavioral-and-brain-sciences_1995-06_18_2/page/227|journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences|volume=18|issue=2|pages=227–47|doi=10.1017/S0140525X00038474|vauthors=Block N|s2cid=246244859}}</ref> Kesadaran terkadang identik dengan 'pikiran', dan di waktu lain, sebuah aspek darinya. Secara historis, hal ini dikaitkan dengan introspeksi, pemikiran pribadi, imajinasi, dan kemauan.<ref name="JJ3">{{cite book|vauthors=Jaynes J|year=2000|url=https://s-f-walker.org.uk/pubsebooks/pdfs/Julian_Jaynes_The_Origin_of_Consciousness.pdf|title=The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|isbn=0-618-05707-2|author-link=Julian Jaynes|access-date=25 October 2020|orig-year=1976|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807100304/https://s-f-walker.org.uk/pubsebooks/pdfs/Julian_Jaynes_The_Origin_of_Consciousness.pdf|archive-date=7 August 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Saat ini, hal ini sering kali mencakup beberapa jenis pengalaman, kognisi, perasaan, atau persepsi. Istilah yang digunakan dapat pula bervariasi, dari 'kesadaran', 'kesadaran akan kesadaran', atau kesadaran diri.<ref name="Rochat 2003 717–731">{{cite journal|date=December 2003|title=Five levels of self-awareness as they unfold early in life|journal=Consciousness and Cognition|volume=12|issue=4|pages=717–31|doi=10.1016/s1053-8100(03)00081-3|pmid=14656513|vauthors=Rochat P|s2cid=10241157}}</ref> Kemungkinan terdapat berbagai tingkat atau urutan kesadaran,<ref name="Carruthers2011">{{cite web|date=15 August 2011|title=Higher-Order Theories of Consciousness|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-higher/|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413163246/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-higher/|archive-date=13 April 2021|access-date=31 August 2014|vauthors=Carruthers P|url-status=live}}</ref> atau berbagai jenis kesadaran, atau hanya satu jenis kesadaran dengan fitur yang berbeda.<ref name="Antony2001">{{cite journal|year=2001|title=Is ''consciousness'' ambiguous?|journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies|volume=8|pages=19–44|vauthors=Antony MV}}</ref>
Proses memperoleh pengetahuan dan pemahaman melalui pemikiran, pengalaman, dan indera disebut sebagai kognisi.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cognition|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/cognition|website=Lexico|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] and [[Dictionary.com]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708041349/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/cognition|archive-date=8 July 2016|access-date=6 May 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref> Otak manusia memahami dunia luar melalui indera, dan masing-masing orang sangat dipengaruhi oleh pengalamannya, yang mengarah pada pandangan subjektif tentang keberadaan dan berlalunya waktu.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Glattfelder JB|date=2019|title=Information—Consciousness—Reality: How a New Understanding of the Universe Can Help Answer Age-Old Questions of Existence|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-03633-1|veditors=Glattfelder JB|series=The Frontiers Collection|pages=515–595|language=en|chapter=The Consciousness of Reality|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-03633-1_14|s2cid=189379814}}</ref> Sifat dasar dari pemikiran adalah hal yang sentral dalam bidang psikologi dan yang terkait dengannya. Psikologi kognitif mempelajari kognisi, yakni proses mental yang melandasi perilaku.<ref>{{cite web|title=American Psychological Association (2013). Glossary of psychological terms|url=https://www.apa.org/research/action/glossary.aspx|publisher=Apa.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708064652/http://www.apa.org/research/action/glossary.aspx|archive-date=8 July 2014|access-date=13 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Dengan fokus utama pada perkembangan pikiran manusia sepanjang rentang kehidupan, psikologi developmental berusaha untuk memahami bagaimana manusia memandang, memahami, dan bertindak di dunia dan bagaimana proses-proses ini berubah seiring bertambahnya usia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Developmental Psychology Studies Human Development Across the Lifespan|url=https://www.apa.org/action/science/developmental/index.aspx|website=www.apa.org|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709054242/https://www.apa.org/action/science/developmental/index.aspx|archive-date=9 July 2014|access-date=28 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Burman E|year=2017|title=Deconstructing Developmental Psychology|location=New York, NY|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-138-84695-1}}</ref> Hal ini dapat berfokus pada perkembangan intelektual, kognitif, saraf, sosial, atau moral. Para psikolog telah mengembangkan tes kecerdasan dan konsep angka kecerdasan (IQ) untuk menilai kecerdasan relatif manusia dan mempelajari sebarannya di dalam masyarakat.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1 January 2004|title=Intelligence Assessment|journal=Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology|language=en|pages=307–314|doi=10.1016/B0-12-657410-3/00510-9|isbn=978-0-12-657410-4|vauthors=Colom R}}</ref>
=== Motivasi dan emosi ===
[[Berkas:Plate_depicting_emotions_of_grief_from_Charles_Darwin's_book_The_Expression_of_the_Emotions.jpg|ka|jmpl|Ilustrasi kesedihan dalam buku [[Charles Darwin]] yang dirilis tahun 1872, ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'']]
Motivasi manusia hingga saat ini belum sepenuhnya dipahami. Dari perspektif psikologis, [[hierarki kebutuhan Maslow]] adalah sebuah teori terkemuka yang dapat didefinisikan sebagai proses pemuasan kebutuhan tertentu dengan urutan kompleksitas yang menanjak.<ref>{{cite web|date=20 March 2020|title=Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs|url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html|website=Simplypsychology.org|publisher=Simply Scholar Limited|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108083314/https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html|archive-date=8 November 2018|access-date=4 April 2020|quote=Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up.|vauthors=McLeod S|url-status=live}}</ref> Dari perspektif filosofis yang lebih umum, motivasi manusia dapat didefinisikan sebagai komitmen terhadap, atau penarikan diri dari, berbagai tujuan yang membutuhkan penggunaan kecakapan manusia. [[Insentif]] dan [[preferensi]] juga merupakan faktor, begitu pula keterkaitan antara keduanya. [[Kemauan]] juga dapat terlibat, dalam hal ini kemauan juga merupakan faktor. Idealnya, baik motivasi maupun kemauan memastikan pemilihan, perjuangan, dan realisasi tujuan dengan cara yang optimal, yang mana [[Fungsi (biologi)|fungsi]] ini dimulai sejak masa kanak-kanak dan terus berlanjut sepanjang hidup dalam sebuah proses yang dikenal sebagai [[sosialisasi]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Heckhausen J, Heckhausen H|date=28 March 2018|title=Motivation and Action|location=Introduction and Overview|publisher=Springer, Cham|isbn=978-3-319-65093-7|page=1|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_1}}</ref>
Emosi adalah keadaan [[biologi]]s yang terkait dengan [[sistem saraf]]<ref>{{cite journal|date=May 1998|title=Emotion in the perspective of an integrated nervous system|journal=Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews|volume=26|issue=2–3|pages=83–6|doi=10.1016/s0165-0173(97)00064-7|pmid=9651488|vauthors=Damasio AR|s2cid=8504450}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Ekman P, Davidson RJ|date=1994|title=The Nature of emotion : fundamental questions|url=https://archive.org/details/natureofemotionf0000unse|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-508944-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/natureofemotionf0000unse/page/291 291]–93|quote=Emotional processing, but not emotions, can occur unconsciously.}}</ref> yang disebabkan oleh perubahan [[neurofisiologi]]s yang terkait dengan pikiran, perasaan, respons perilaku, dan tingkat kesenangan atau ketidaksenangan.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2002|title=What is emotion?|journal=Behavioural Processes|volume=60|issue=2|pages=69–83|doi=10.1016/S0376-6357(02)00078-5|pmid=12426062|quote=Emotion is any mental experience with high intensity and high hedonic content (pleasure/displeasure)|vauthors=Cabanac M|s2cid=24365776}}</ref><ref name="Schacter">{{cite book|vauthors=Scirst DL|year=2011|url=https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha/page/310|title=Psychology Second Edition|location=New York, NY|publisher=Worth Publishers|isbn=978-1-4292-3719-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha/page/310 310]}}</ref> Emosi sering kali berkaitan dengan suasana hati, temperamen, kepribadian, watak, kreativitas,<ref>{{cite journal|date=April 1999|title=Individual differences in emotional creativity: structure and correlates|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality_1999-04_67_2/page/331|journal=Journal of Personality|volume=67|issue=2|pages=331–71|doi=10.1111/1467-6494.00058|pmid=10202807|vauthors=Averill JR}}</ref> dan motivasi. Emosi memiliki pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap perilaku manusia dan kemampuan mereka untuk belajar.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2017|title=The Influences of Emotion on Learning and Memory|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=8|page=1454|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01454|pmc=5573739|pmid=28883804|vauthors=Tyng CM, Amin HU, Saad MN, Malik AS|doi-access=free}}</ref> Bertindak berdasarkan emosi yang ekstrem atau tidak terkendali dapat menyebabkan gangguan sosial dan kejahatan,<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Van Gelder JL|date=November 2016|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317042659|title=Oxford Bibliographies in Criminology|publisher=Oxford University Press|veditors=Wright R|chapter=Emotions in Criminal Decision Making|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129211201/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317042659|archive-date=29 January 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> dengan penelitian yang menunjukkan bahwa kriminal kemungkinan memiliki [[kecerdasan emosional]] yang lebih rendah dari biasanya.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2015|title=The relation between emotional intelligence and criminal behavior: A study among convicted criminals|journal=Industrial Psychiatry Journal|volume=24|issue=1|pages=54–8|doi=10.4103/0972-6748.160934|pmc=4525433|pmid=26257484|vauthors=Sharma N, Prakash O, Sengar KS, Chaudhury S, Singh AR}}</ref>
Pengalaman emosional yang dianggap menyenangkan, seperti kegembiraan, ketertarikan, atau kepuasan, bertentangan dengan pengalaman emosional yang dianggap tidak menyenangkan, seperti kecemasan, kesedihan, kemarahan, dan keputusasaan.<ref>{{cite journal|date=March 2001|title=The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|journal=The American Psychologist|volume=56|issue=3|pages=218–26|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218|pmc=3122271|pmid=11315248|vauthors=Fredrickson BL}}</ref> Kebahagiaan, atau keadaan bahagia, adalah kondisi emosional manusia. Definisi kebahagiaan masuk ke dalam topik filosofis yang umum. Beberapa orang mendefinisikannya sebagai pengalaman perasaan emosi positif, sambil menghindari emosi negatif.<ref>{{cite journal|date=August 2013|title=The proper pursuit of happiness.|journal=Res Philosophica|volume=90|issue=3|pages=387–411|doi=10.11612/resphil.2013.90.3.5|vauthors=Haybron DM}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=13 April 2014|title=Happiness and Its Discontents|url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/04/13/happiness-and-its-discontents/|work=The Opinion Pages|publisher=The New York Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012094415/https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/04/13/happiness-and-its-discontents/|archive-date=12 October 2018|access-date=30 July 2022|quote=I would suggest that when we talk about happiness, we are actually referring, much of the time, to a complex emotional phenomenon. Call it emotional well-being. Happiness as emotional well-being concerns your emotions and moods, more broadly your emotional condition as a whole. To be happy is to inhabit a favorable emotional state.... On this view, we can think of happiness, loosely, as the opposite of anxiety and depression. Being in good spirits, quick to laugh and slow to anger, at peace and untroubled, confident and comfortable in your own skin, engaged, energetic and full of life.|vauthors=Haybron DM|url-status=live}}</ref> Yang lain melihatnya sebagai penilaian kepuasan hidup atau kualitas hidup.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Graham MC|date=2014|title=Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment|publisher=Outskirts Press|isbn=978-1-4787-2259-5|pages=6–10}}</ref> Penelitian terbaru menunjukkan bahwa menjadi bahagia mungkin melibatkan pengalaman beberapa emosi negatif ketika manusia merasa bahwa mereka layak mendapatkan sesuatu hal.<ref>{{cite web|date=14 August 2017|title=Secret to happiness may include more unpleasant emotions: Research contradicts idea that people should always seek pleasure to be happy|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/08/170814092813.htm|website=ScienceDaily|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]]|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111181025/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/08/170814092813.htm|archive-date=11 November 2020|access-date=25 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>
===
[[Berkas:Sweet_Baby_Kisses_Family_Love.jpg|jmpl|Kasih sayang keluarga dapat terlihat pada orang tua kepada anak-anak mereka.]]
Seksualitas pada manusia melibatkan perasaan dan perilaku [[biologi]]s, [[Erotisisme|erotis]], [[fisik]], [[emosi]]onal, [[sosial]], atau [[spiritual]].<ref name="S. Greenberg">{{cite book|vauthors=Greenberg JS, Bruess CE, Oswalt SB|year=2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8iarCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|title=Exploring the Dimensions of Human Sexuality|publisher=[[Jones & Bartlett Publishers]]|isbn=978-1-284-08154-1|pages=4–10|quote=Human sexuality is a part of your total personality. It involves the interrelationship of biological, psychological, and sociocultural dimensions. [...] It is the total of our physical, emotional, and spiritual responses, thoughts, and feelings.|access-date=21 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224231839/https://books.google.com/books?id=8iarCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|archive-date=24 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Bolin">{{cite book|vauthors=Bolin A, Whelehan P|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrPHYok19v8C&pg=PA32|title=Human Sexuality: Biological, Psychological, and Cultural Perspectives|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-0-7890-2671-2|pages=32–42}}</ref> Dikarenakan ini adalah istilah yang luas, yang telah mengalami variasi dengan konteks historis dari waktu ke waktu, maka definisi yang akurat tidaklah ada.<ref name="Bolin" /> Aspek biologis dan fisik dari seksualitas sebagian besar menyangkut fungsi reproduksi manusia, termasuk siklus respons seksual manusia.<ref name="S. Greenberg" /><ref name="Bolin" /> Seksualitas juga memengaruhi dan dipengaruhi oleh aspek budaya, politik, hukum, filosofis, moral, etika, dan agama dalam kehidupan.<ref name="S. Greenberg" /><ref name="Bolin" /> Hasrat seksual, atau [[libido]], adalah kondisi mental dasar yang hadir pada awal perilaku seksual. Studi menunjukkan bahwa pria lebih menginginkan seks daripada wanita dan lebih sering melakukan [[masturbasi]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=2013|title=Sex difference in libido|journal=Human Andrology|language=en-US|volume=3|issue=4|pages=85–89|doi=10.1097/01.XHA.0000432482.01760.b0|vauthors=Younis I, Abdel-Rahman SH|s2cid=147235090}}</ref>
Manusia dapat tergolong di mana saja dalam skala [[orientasi seksual]] yang berkelanjutan,<ref name="APASO">{{cite web|title=Sexual orientation, homosexuality and bisexuality|url=https://www.apa.org/helpcenter/sexual-orientation.aspx|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808032050/https://www.apa.org/helpcenter/sexual-orientation.aspx|archive-date=8 August 2013|access-date=10 August 2013}}</ref> kendati sebagian besar manusia adalah [[heteroseksual]].<ref name="Bailey16">{{cite journal|date=September 2016|title=Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|volume=17|issue=2|pages=45–101|doi=10.1177/1529100616637616|pmid=27113562|vauthors=Bailey JM, Vasey PL, Diamond LM, Breedlove SM, Vilain E, Epprecht M|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="LeVay">{{cite book|vauthors=LeVay S|date=2017|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmQFFfa03nkC|title=Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-975296-6|pages=8, 19|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022014657/https://books.google.com/books?id=HmQFFfa03nkC|archive-date=22 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Meskipun perilaku [[Homoseksualitas|homoseksual]] juga [[Perilaku homoseksual pada hewan|terjadi pada beberapa hewan lain]], sejauh ini hanya manusia dan domba domestik lah yang sejumlah individunya diketahui menunjukkan preferensi eksklusif untuk hubungan sesama jenis.<ref name="Bailey16" /> Sebagian besar bukti menunjukkan bahwa orientasi seksual disebabkan oleh faktor nonsosial dan biologis.<ref name="LeVay" /><ref name="Balthazart">{{cite book|vauthors=Balthazart J|date=2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3fjGjlcVINkC|title=The Biology of Homosexuality|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-983882-0|pages=13–14|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126132532/https://books.google.com/books?id=3fjGjlcVINkC|archive-date=26 January 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> Hal ini sejalan dengan penemuan bahwa tidak adanya kecenderungan yang tinggi prilaku homoseksualitas pada populasi yang toleran kepada homoseksualitas, begitupula sebaliknya.<ref name="LeVay" /><ref name="Balthazart" /> Penelitian di bidang [[neurosains]] dan [[genetika]] menunjukkan bahwa faktor biologis juga mempengaruhi aspek-aspek lain pada seksualitas manusia.<ref name="Buss2003">{{cite book|vauthors=Buss DM|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionofdesir00buss|title=The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating.|location=New York City|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-465-00802-5|edition=Revised}}</ref>
Cinta umumnya mengacu pada perasaan ketertarikan yang kuat atau keterikatan emosional. Cinta dapat bersifat impersonal (cinta terhadap suatu objek, cita-cita, atau hubungan politik atau spiritual yang kuat) atau interpersonal (cinta antar manusia).<ref name="Fromm, Erich 2000">{{cite book|vauthors=Fromm E|date=2000|title=The art of loving|location=New York|publisher=Harper Perennial|isbn=978-0-06-095828-2}}</ref> Saat jatuh cinta, [[dopamin]], [[Noradrenalin|norepinefrin]], [[serotonin]], dan zat kimia lainnya merangsang pusat kesenangan otak, yang menyebabkan efek samping seperti peningkatan [[detak jantung]], kehilangan [[nafsu makan]] dan [[tidur]], dan [[Euforia|perasaan bahagia yang intens]].<ref>{{cite web|date=14 February 2017|title=Love, Actually: The science behind lust, attraction, and companionship|url=https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2017/love-actually-science-behind-lust-attraction-companionship/|website=Science in the News|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028090542/http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2017/love-actually-science-behind-lust-attraction-companionship/|archive-date=28 October 2020|access-date=25 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Budaya ==
{{Infobox|title=Statistik masyarakat|label1=Bahasa yang paling banyak digunakan<!--PLEASE LIMIT TO TOP TEN--><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/ethnologue200|title=What are the top 200 most spoken languages?|work=[[Ethnologue: Languages of the World]]|date=2020|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=12 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112222210/http://www.ethnologue.org/ethno_docs/distribution.asp?by=size|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=CIAWorldFactbook>{{cite report|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|title=World|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=15 November 2021|date=|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032610/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|url-status=live}}</ref>|data1=[[Bahasa Inggris|Inggris]], [[Bahasa mandarin|Mandarin]], [[Bahasa Hindi|Hindi]], [[Bahasa spanyol|Spanyol]], [[Bahasa arab|Arab]], [[bahasa bengali|Bengali]], [[French language|Prancis]], [[Russian language|Rusia]], [[Portuguese language|Portugis]], [[Urdu]]<!--PLEASE LIMIT TO TOP TEN-->|label2=Agama yang paling banyak dianut<ref name=CIAWorldFactbook /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|date=5 April 2017|publisher=Pew Research Center|title=The Changing Global Religious Landscape|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=18 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218030628/https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|url-status=live}}</ref>|data2=[[Kekristenan]], [[Islam]], [[Hindu]], [[Buddhisme]], [[agama rakyat]], [[Sikhisme]], [[Judaisme]], [[Tidak beragama]]}}
Kemampuan intelektual manusia yang sangat tinggi merupakan faktor kunci dalam kemajuan teknologi dan dominasi spesies ini terhadap biosfer.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Ord T|date=2020|title=The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity|location=New York|publisher=Hachette Books|isbn=978-0-316-48489-3|quote=Homo sapiens and our close relatives may have some unique physical attributes, such as our dextrous hands, upright walking and resonant voices. However, these on their own cannot explain our success. They went together with our intelligence...}}</ref> Terlepas dari spesies hominid lain yang telah punah, manusia adalah satu-satunya hewan yang diketahui dapat mengajarkan informasi yang dapat digeneralisasikan,<ref>{{cite news|date=2012|title=Pay attention… time for lessons at animal school|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20121005-pay-attention-its-animal-school|work=bbc.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130120957/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20121005-pay-attention-its-animal-school|archive-date=30 January 2021|access-date=22 April 2020|vauthors=Goldman JG|url-status=live}}</ref> dengan menggunakan penyematan rekursif untuk menghasilkan dan mengomunikasikan beragam konsep yang rumit,<ref>{{cite journal|date=November 2018|title=Infant cognition includes the potentially human-unique ability to encode embedding|journal=Science Advances|volume=4|issue=11|pages=eaar8334|bibcode=2018SciA....4.8334W|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aar8334|pmc=6248967|pmid=30474053|vauthors=Winkler M, Mueller JL, Friederici AD, Männel C|doi-access=free}}</ref> menggunakan fisika sederhana yang diperlukan untuk merancang alat yang kompeten,<ref>{{cite journal|date=July 2003|title=What's so special about human tool use?|journal=Neuron|volume=39|issue=2|pages=201–4|doi=10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00424-0|pmid=12873378|vauthors=Johnson-Frey SH|s2cid=18437970}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Tool use and physical cognition in birds and mammals|journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology|volume=19|issue=1|pages=27–33|doi=10.1016/j.conb.2009.02.003|pmid=19328675|quote=In short, the evidence to date that animals have an understanding of folk physics is at best mixed.|vauthors=Emery NJ, Clayton NS|s2cid=18277620}}</ref> atau memasak makanan di alam liar.<ref>{{cite news|date=3 June 2015|title=Chimps Can't Cook, But Maybe They'd Like To|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/06/150602-chimp-cooking-evolution-human-brain-science/|work=National Geographic News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131064840/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/06/150602-chimp-cooking-evolution-human-brain-science/|archive-date=31 January 2021|access-date=22 April 2020|vauthors=Lemonick MD|url-status=live}}</ref> Proses belajar mengajar berperan dalam melestarikan identitas budaya dan etnografi dalam komunitas manusia.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2 June 2015|title=The Role and Importance of the Study of Economic Subjects in the Implementation of the Educational Potential of Education|journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences|series=The Proceedings of 6th World Conference on educational Sciences|language=en|volume=191|pages=2565–2567|doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.690|issn=1877-0428|vauthors=Vakhitova T, Gadelshina L}}</ref> Karakteristik dan perilaku lain yang umumnya unik pada manusia antara lain menyalakan api,<ref>{{cite news|date=9 October 2018|title=The Book of Humans by Adam Rutherford review – a pithy homage to our species|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/oct/09/the-book-of-humans-adam-rutherford-review|work=The Guardian|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205084949/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/oct/09/the-book-of-humans-adam-rutherford-review|archive-date=5 February 2021|access-date=22 April 2020|vauthors=McKie R|url-status=live}}</ref> menyusun [[fonem]],<ref>{{cite news|date=29 June 2015|title=Babblers speak to the origin of language|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/animal-magic/2015/jun/29/babblers-birds-origin-evolution-language|work=The Guardian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131120059/https://www.theguardian.com/science/animal-magic/2015/jun/29/babblers-birds-origin-evolution-language|archive-date=31 January 2021|access-date=22 April 2020|vauthors=Nicholls H|url-status=live}}</ref> dan pembelajaran vokal.<ref>{{cite news|date=2015|title=Can any animals talk and use language like humans?|url=https://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150216-can-any-animals-talk-like-humans|work=bbc.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200502172910/http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150216-can-any-animals-talk-like-humans|archive-date=2 May 2020|access-date=22 April 2020|quote=Most animals are not vocal learners.|vauthors=Dasgupta S|url-status=live}}</ref>
===
{{Main|Bahasa}}
Meskipun [[komunikasi]] dilakukan oleh banyak spesies, [[bahasa]] merupakan hal yang khusus ada pada manusia, sebuah ciri khas kemanusiaan, dan kultur yang universal.<ref>{{cite web|date=18 September 2013|title=Why is language unique to humans?|url=https://royalsociety.org/news/2013/language-unique-humans/|publisher=Royal Society|language=en-gb|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118210915/https://royalsociety.org/news/2013/language-unique-humans/|archive-date=18 January 2021|access-date=24 October 2020|vauthors=Scott-Phillips TC, Blythe RA|url-status=live}}</ref> Tidak seperti sistem terbatas pada hewan lain, bahasa manusia bersifat terbuka, jumlah makna yang tak terhingga dapat dihasilkan dengan menggabungkan sejumlah simbol yang terbatas.<ref>{{cite journal|date=July 2017|title=Q&A: What is human language, when did it evolve and why should we care?|journal=BMC Biology|volume=15|issue=1|page=64|doi=10.1186/s12915-017-0405-3|pmc=5525259|pmid=28738867|vauthors=Pagel M}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=4 December 2010|title=Language evolution: How to hear words long silenced|journal=New Scientist|language=en|volume=208|issue=2789|pages=ii–iii|bibcode=2010NewSc.208D...2F|doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(10)62961-2|issn=0262-4079|vauthors=Fitch WT}}</ref> Bahasa manusia juga memiliki kapasitas perpindahan, menggunakan kata-kata untuk mewakili hal-hal dan kejadian yang tidak terjadi secara lokal atau saat ini, tetapi berada dalam imajinasi bersama dengan lawan bicaranya.<ref name="Revolution2" />
Bahasa berbeda dengan bentuk komunikasi lainnya karena bahasa tidak bergantung pada medium; dengan makna yang serupa dapat disampaikan melalui media yang berbeda, baik secara audio dalam bentuk ucapan, visual dengan [[bahasa isyarat]] atau tulisan, dan melalui media taktil seperti [[braille]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Lian A|date=2016|title=Language Evolution and Developmental Impairments|place=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-1-137-58746-6|veditors=Lian A|pages=229–255|language=en|chapter=The Modality-Independent Capacity of Language: A Milestone of Evolution|doi=10.1057/978-1-137-58746-6_7}}</ref> Bahasa adalah pusat komunikasi antar manusia, dan rasa identitas yang menyatukan bangsa, budaya, dan kelompok etnis.<ref>{{cite web|date=5 June 2015|title=Culture {{!}} United Nations For Indigenous Peoples|url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/mandated-areas1/culture.html|website=www.un.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126163227/https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/mandated-areas1/culture.html|archive-date=26 November 2020|access-date=24 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Ada sekitar enam ribu bahasa yang saat ini digunakan, termasuk bahasa isyarat, di samping ribuan bahasa lainnya yang sudah [[Bahasa mati|punah]].<ref name="Comrie1996">{{cite book|vauthors=Comrie B, Polinsky M, Matthews S|year=1996|title=The Atlas of Languages: The Origin and Development of Languages Throughout the World|url=https://archive.org/details/atlasoflanguages0000unse|location=New York City|publisher=Facts on File|isbn=978-0-8160-3388-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/atlasoflanguages0000unse/page/13 13]–15}}</ref>
=== Seni ===
{{Main|Seni||}}
Seni manusia dapat mengambil berbagai bentuk meliputi [[seni visual]], [[sastra]], dan [[Seni pertunjukan|pertunjukan]]. Seni visual dapat berupa [[Seni lukis|lukisan]], [[patung]], [[film]], desain interaksi, dan [[arsitektur]].<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Mavrody S|year=2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tBqgBQAAQBAJ|title=Visual Art Forms: Traditional to Digital|publisher=Sergey's HTML5 & CSS3|isbn=978-0-9833867-5-9|language=en|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428134100/https://books.google.com/books?id=tBqgBQAAQBAJ|archive-date=28 April 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Seni sastra dapat mencakup [[prosa]], [[puisi]], dan [[drama]]; sedangkan seni pertunjukan umumnya melibatkan [[teater]], [[musik]], dan tari.<ref>{{cite web|date=2020|title=Types of Literary Arts and Their Understanding – bookfestivalscotland.com|url=https://bookfestivalscotland.com/types-of-literary-arts-and-their-understanding/|website=Bookfestival Scotland|language=en-UK|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505234546/http://bookfestivalscotland.com/types-of-literary-arts-and-their-understanding/|archive-date=5 May 2021|access-date=5 May 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Bachelor of Performing Arts|url=https://www.otago.ac.nz/performing-arts/otago056890.pdf|website=[[University of Otago]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214010758/https://www.otago.ac.nz/performing-arts/otago056890.pdf|archive-date=14 December 2021|access-date=30 July 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Manusia sering kali menggabungkan bentuk-bentuk seni yang berbeda (misalnya, video musik).<ref>{{Cite journal|date=24 October 2018|title=Toward a Unification of the Arts|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=9|page=1938|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01938|issn=1664-1078|pmc=6207603|pmid=30405470|vauthors=Brown S|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hal-hal lain yang juga disebut memiliki kualitas artistik seperti persiapan makanan, video game, dan obat-obatan.<ref>{{cite web|date=21 October 2019|title=Culinary arts – How cooking can be an art|url=https://www.northernartprize.org.uk/culinary-arts-cooking-can-art|website=Northern Contemporary Art|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511102807/http://www.northernartprize.org.uk/culinary-arts-cooking-can-art|archive-date=11 May 2021|access-date=5 May 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1 January 2005|title=Are Video Games Art?|url=https://digitalcommons.risd.edu/liberalarts_contempaesthetics/vol3/iss1/6|journal=Contemporary Aesthetics (Journal Archive)|volume=3|issue=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529081114/https://digitalcommons.risd.edu/liberalarts_contempaesthetics/vol3/iss1/6/|archive-date=29 May 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Smuts A|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=September 2015|title=Art of medicine|journal=Canadian Family Physician|volume=61|issue=9|pages=739–40|pmc=4569099|pmid=26371092|vauthors=Cameron IA, Pimlott N}}</ref> Selain memberikan hiburan dan mentransfer pengetahuan, seni juga digunakan untuk tujuan politik.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=7 June 2019|title=Rethinking the role of the arts in politics: lessons from the Négritude movement|journal=International Journal of Cultural Policy|language=en|volume=25|issue=4|pages=458–470|doi=10.1080/10286632.2017.1311328|issn=1028-6632|vauthors=Bird G|s2cid=151443044}}</ref>
[[Berkas:British_Museum_Flood_Tablet.jpg|jmpl|Tablet [[Mitos air bah|Banjir]] dari [[Wiracarita Gilgamesh|epos Gilgamesh]] dalam [[bahasa Akkadia]]]]
Seni adalah karakteristik dasar manusia dan terdapat bukti adanya hubungan antara kreativitas dan bahasa.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal|date=February 2010|title=The evolution of human artistic creativity|journal=Journal of Anatomy|volume=216|issue=2|pages=158–76|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01160.x|pmc=2815939|pmid=19900185|vauthors=Morriss-Kay GM}}</ref> Bukti paling awal dari seni adalah ukiran kerang yang dibuat oleh ''[[Homo erectus]]'' 300.000 tahun sebelum manusia modern berevolusi.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=February 2015|title=Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving|journal=Nature|volume=518|issue=7538|pages=228–31|bibcode=2015Natur.518..228J|doi=10.1038/nature13962|pmid=25470048|vauthors=Joordens JC, d'Errico F, Wesselingh FP, Munro S, de Vos J, Wallinga J, Ankjærgaard C, Reimann T, Wijbrans JR, Kuiper KF, Mücher HJ, Coqueugniot H, Prié V, Joosten I, van Os B, Schulp AS, Panuel M, van der Haas V, Lustenhouwer W, Reijmer JJ, Roebroeks W|s2cid=4461751}}</ref> Seni yang dikaitkan dengan ''H. sapiens'' sudah ada setidaknya 75.000 tahun yang lalu, dengan perhiasan dan gambar yang ditemukan di gua-gua di [[Afrika Selatan]].<ref>{{cite news|date=12 September 2018|title=Oldest Known Drawing by Human Hands Discovered in South African Cave|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/12/science/oldest-drawing-ever-found.html|newspaper=The New York Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414094752/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/12/science/oldest-drawing-ever-found.html|archive-date=14 April 2020|access-date=20 September 2018|vauthors=St Fleur N|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=16 April 2004|title=World's oldest jewellery found in cave|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/apr/16/artsandhumanities.arts|work=The Guardian|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212095737/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/apr/16/artsandhumanities.arts|archive-date=12 February 2021|access-date=23 September 2020|vauthors=Radford T|url-status=live}}</ref> Ada berbagai hipotesis mengapa manusia beradaptasi dengan seni. Antara lain, memungkinkan mereka untuk memecahkan masalah dengan lebih baik, menyediakan sarana untuk mengendalikan atau mempengaruhi manusia lain, mendorong kerja sama dan kontribusi dalam masyarakat, atau meningkatkan peluang untuk menarik calon pasangan.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Dissanayake E|year=2008|title=World Art Studies: Exploring Concepts and Approaches|location=Amsterdam|publisher=Valiz|veditors=Zijlmans K, van Damme W|pages=241–263|chapter=The Arts after Darwin: Does Art have an Origin and Adaptive Function?}}</ref> Penggunaan imajinasi yang dikembangkan melalui seni, dikombinasikan dengan logika mungkin telah memberi manusia purba keuntungan evolusioner.<ref name=":4" />
Bukti menunjukkan bahwa manusia telah terlibat dalam aktivitas musik sebelum masa lukisan gua dan sejauh ini musik telah dipraktikkan oleh hampir semua budaya manusia yang diketahui.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|date=2014|title=A multi-disciplinary approach to the origins of music: perspectives from anthropology, archaeology, cognition and behaviour|journal=Journal of Anthropological Sciences = Rivista di Antropologia|volume=92|issue=92|pages=147–77|doi=10.4436/JASS.92008|pmid=25020016|vauthors=Morley I}}</ref> Ada berbagai macam [[genre musik]] dan musik etnis; dengan kemampuan musik manusia yang berhubungan dengan kemampuan lainnya, termasuk perilaku sosial manusia yang kompleks.<ref name=":2" /> Telah terbukti bahwa otak manusia merespons musik dengan cara menyelaraskan diri dengan irama dan ketukan, sebuah proses yang disebut dengan ''entrainment''.<ref>{{cite journal|date=December 2014|title=Getting the beat: entrainment of brain activity by musical rhythm and pleasantness|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02446627/file/Trost2014_UncorrectedProof.pdf|journal=NeuroImage|volume=103|pages=55–64|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.09.009|pmid=25224999|vauthors=Trost W, Frühholz S, Schön D, Labbé C, Pichon S, Grandjean D, Vuilleumier P|s2cid=4727529}}</ref> Tarian juga merupakan bentuk ekspresi manusia yang ditemukan di semua budaya<ref>{{cite journal|date=March 2015|title=Dance and the brain: a review|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1337|issue=1|pages=140–6|bibcode=2015NYASA1337..140K|doi=10.1111/nyas.12632|pmid=25773628|vauthors=Karpati FJ, Giacosa C, Foster NE, Penhune VB, Hyde KL|s2cid=206224849}}</ref> dan mungkin telah berevolusi sebagai cara untuk membantu manusia purba berkomunikasi.<ref>{{cite web|date=22 March 2010|title=Why Do Humans Dance?|url=https://www.livescience.com/8132-humans-dance.html|website=livescience.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201180750/https://www.livescience.com/8132-humans-dance.html|archive-date=1 February 2021|access-date=21 September 2020|vauthors=Chow D|url-status=live}}</ref> Mendengarkan musik dan mengamati tarian menstimulasi [[korteks orbitofrontal]] dan area penginderaan kesenangan lainnya di otak.<ref>{{cite web|date=26 September 2008|title=Why do we like to dance--And move to the beat?|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/experts-dance/|website=Scientific American|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228035904/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/experts-dance/|archive-date=28 February 2021|access-date=21 September 2020|vauthors=Krakauer J|url-status=live}}</ref>
Tidak seperti halnya berbicara, membaca dan menulis tidak datang secara alami pada manusia dan harus diajarkan.<ref>{{cite web|date=21 June 2013|title=How Reading Makes Us More Human|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/06/how-reading-makes-us-more-human/277079/|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129222006/https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/06/how-reading-makes-us-more-human/277079/|archive-date=29 January 2021|access-date=23 September 2020|vauthors=Prior KS|url-status=live}}</ref> Meski demikian, [[sastra]] telah ada sebelum diciptakannya kata-kata dan bahasa, ditandai dengan lukisan berusia 30.000 tahun di dinding-dinding gua yang menggambarkan serangkaian adegan dramatis.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|title=How stories have shaped the world|url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20180423-how-stories-have-shaped-the-world|website=www.bbc.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105053111/https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20180423-how-stories-have-shaped-the-world|archive-date=5 January 2021|access-date=23 September 2020|vauthors=Puchner M|url-status=live}}</ref> Salah satu karya sastra tertua yang masih ada adalah [[Wiracarita Gilgamesh|Epos Gilgamesh]], yang pertama kali diukir di tablet [[Babilonia]] kuno sekitar 4.000 tahun yang lalu.<ref>{{cite book|year=2000|title=Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others|url=https://archive.org/details/mythsfrommesopot0000unse_o9l9|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-283589-5|editor-last=Dalley|editor-first=Stephanie|editor-link=Stephanie Dalley|edition=revised|page=[https://archive.org/details/mythsfrommesopot0000unse_o9l9/page/41 41]}}</ref> Lebih dari sekadar mewariskan pengetahuan, penggunaan dan berbagi [[fiksi]] imajinatif melalui cerita mungkin telah membantu mengembangkan kemampuan manusia untuk berkomunikasi dan meningkatkan kemungkinan mendapatkan pasangan.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2001|title=Literature and Evolution|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3685504|journal=SubStance|volume=30|issue=1/2|pages=55–71|doi=10.2307/3685504|issn=0049-2426|jstor=3685504|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130052249/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3685504|archive-date=30 January 2021|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Hernadi P|url-status=live}}</ref> Bercerita juga dapat digunakan sebagai cara untuk memberikan pelajaran moral dan mendorong kerja sama.<ref name=":3" />
=== Alat dan teknologi ===
{{Main|Alat|Teknologi}}
[[Berkas:JR-Maglev-MLX01-2.jpg|al=Train running on a track|jmpl|SCMaglev, kereta tercepat di dunia dengan kecepatan 603 km/jam (375 mph) per tahun 2015<ref>{{cite news|date=21 April 2015|title=Japan's Maglev Train Breaks World Speed Record with 600 km/h Test Run|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/21/japans-maglev-train-notches-up-new-world-speed-record-in-test-run|work=The Guardian|edition=U.S.|location=New York|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618083538/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/21/japans-maglev-train-notches-up-new-world-speed-record-in-test-run|archive-date=18 June 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=McCurry J|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Alat-alat terbuat dari batu telah digunakan oleh proto-manusia setidaknya 2,5 juta tahun yang lalu.<ref name="Clark1994">{{cite journal|author1=Clark JD|author2=de Heinzelin J|author2-link=Jean de Heinzelin de Braucourt|author3=Schick KD|author3-link=Kathy Schick|author4=Hart WK|author4-link=|author5=White TD|author5-link=Tim D. White|author6=WoldeGabriel G|author6-link=|author7=Walter RC|author7-link=|author8=Suwa G|author8-link=Gen Suwa|author9=Asfaw B|author9-link=Berhane Asfaw|date=June 1994|title=African Homo erectus: old radiometric ages and young Oldowan assemblages in the Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia|journal=Science|volume=264|issue=5167|pages=1907–10|bibcode=1994Sci...264.1907C|doi=10.1126/science.8009220|pmid=8009220|author1-link=|author10=Vrba E|author10-link=Elisabeth Vrba|author11=H.-Selassie Y|author11-link=Yohannes Haile-Selassie}}</ref> Penggunaan dan pembuatan perkakas telah dikemukakan sebagai kemampuan yang mendefinisikan manusia lebih dari apa pun<ref name=":7">{{cite web|date=11 November 2009|title=Human Evolution: The Origin of Tool Use|url=https://www.livescience.com/7968-human-evolution-origin-tool.html|website=livescience.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004144848/https://www.livescience.com/7968-human-evolution-origin-tool.html|archive-date=4 October 2020|access-date=9 October 2020|vauthors=Choi CQ|url-status=live}}</ref> dan secara historis dipandang sebagai langkah evolusi yang penting.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2014|title=The neural basis of human tool use|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=5|page=310|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00310|pmc=3988392|pmid=24782809|vauthors=Orban GA, Caruana F|doi-access=free}}</ref> Teknologi menjadi jauh lebih mutakhir sekitar 1,8 juta tahun yang lalu,<ref name=":7" /> dengan penggunaan api yang terkendali dimulai sekitar 1 juta tahun yang lalu.<ref name=":03">{{cite journal|date=May 2012|title=Microstratigraphic evidence of in situ fire in the Acheulean strata of Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape province, South Africa|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=109|issue=20|pages=E1215-20|doi=10.1073/pnas.1117620109|pmc=3356665|pmid=22474385|vauthors=Berna F, Goldberg P, Horwitz LK, Brink J, Holt S, Bamford M, Chazan M|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=June 2016|title=The discovery of fire by humans: a long and convoluted process|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=371|issue=1696|page=20150164|doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0164|pmc=4874402|pmid=27216521|vauthors=Gowlett JA}}</ref> Roda dan kendaraan beroda muncul secara bersamaan di beberapa wilayah pada milenium keempat sebelum masehi.<ref name=":14" /> Perkembangan alat dan teknologi yang lebih kompleks memungkinkan tanah untuk diolah dan hewan untuk dijinakkan, yang kemudian terbukti penting dalam perkembangan [[pertanian]], yang dikenal sebagai [[Revolusi Neolitikum]].<ref>{{cite web|date=2018|title=Neolithic Era Tools: Inventing a New Age|url=https://www.magellantv.com/articles/tools-of-the-neolithic-era-inventing-a-new-age|website=MagellanTV|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105053059/https://www.magellantv.com/articles/tools-of-the-neolithic-era-inventing-a-new-age|archive-date=5 January 2021|access-date=9 October 2020|vauthors=Damiano J|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Catatan ==
{{Reflist|group=n}}
== Referensi ==
{{reflist}}
{{evolusi manusia}}
{{Hominidae nav}}
{{kera}}
{{taxonbar|from=Q15978631}}
{{pengawasan otoritas|state=expanded}}
[[Kategori:Manusia| ]]
[[Kategori:Pemangsa puncak]]
[[Kategori:Artikel yang mengandung klip video]]
[[Kategori:Mamalia dijelaskan tahun 1758]]
[[Kategori:Taksa dinamai oleh Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Kategori:Mamalia pengguna alat]]
| |||