Austria-Hungaria: Perbedaan antara revisi
Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan
k Perubahan dalam memperbaiki/merapikan suntingan. Tag: halaman dengan galat kutipan VisualEditor Suntingan perangkat seluler Suntingan peramban seluler |
k Perubahan dalam memperbaiki/merapikan suntingan. Tag: halaman dengan galat kutipan kemungkinan perlu dirapikan VisualEditor Suntingan perangkat seluler Suntingan peramban seluler pranala ke halaman disambiguasi |
||
Baris 147:
== Sejarah ==
=== '''1867: Formasi''' ===
{{Main|Kompromi Austria-Hongaria 1867}}
{{Sejarah Austria|boxwidth=200px|marginleft=0|marginright=0}}
{{Sejarah Hungaria|boxwidth=200px|marginleft=0|marginright=0}}
Kompromi Austro-Hongaria tahun 1867 (disebut ''Ausgleich'' dalam bahasa Jerman dan ''Kiegyezés'' dalam bahasa Hongaria), yang meresmikan struktur rangkap kekaisaran menggantikan bekas Kekaisaran Austria (1804–1867), bermula pada masa ketika kekuatan Austria menurun dan berkuasa—baik di Semenanjung Italia (sebagai akibat dari Perang Kemerdekaan Italia Kedua tahun 1859) dan di antara negara bagian bekas Konfederasi Jerman , diganti setelah Perang Austro-Prusia tahun 1866 dengan Konfederasi Jerman Utara di bawah kepemimpinan Prusiasebagai kekuatan berbahasa Jerman yang dominan, sementara itu meninggalkan Kekaisaran Austria di luar. <ref name=":0" /> Kompromi membangun kembali <ref name=":0" /> kedaulatan penuh Kerajaan Hongaria, yang telah hilang setelah Revolusi Hongaria tahun 1848 .
Faktor lain dalam perubahan konstitusional adalah ketidakpuasan Hongaria yang terus berlanjut terhadap kekuasaan dari Wina dan meningkatnya kesadaran nasional di pihak bangsa (atau etnis) lain di Kekaisaran Austria. Ketidakpuasan Hongaria muncul sebagian dari penindasan Austria, dengan dukungan Rusia , terhadap revolusi liberal Hongaria tahun 1848–1849. Namun, ketidakpuasan terhadap pemerintahan Austria telah berkembang selama bertahun-tahun di Hongaria dan memiliki banyak penyebab lainnya.
Pada akhir tahun 1850-an, sejumlah besar orang Hongaria yang mendukung revolusi 1848–49 bersedia menerima monarki Habsburg. Mereka berargumen bahwa, sementara Hongaria memiliki hak untuk kemerdekaan internal penuh, di bawah Sanksi Pragmatis tahun 1713 , urusan luar negeri dan pertahanan adalah "umum" bagi Austria dan Hongaria. <ref name="Kann 1974">{{harvnb|Kann|1974|pp=}}</ref>
Setelah kekalahan Austria di Königgrätz , pemerintah menyadari perlu berdamai dengan Hongaria untuk mendapatkan kembali status kekuatan besar. Menteri luar negeri baru, Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust , ingin menyelesaikan negosiasi yang macet dengan Hongaria. Untuk mengamankan monarki, Kaisar Franz Joseph memulai negosiasi untuk kompromi dengan bangsawan Hongaria , yang dipimpin oleh Ferenc Deák . Pada tanggal 20 Maret 1867, parlemen Hongaria didirikan kembali di Pestmulai menegosiasikan undang-undang baru yang akan diterima pada 30 Maret. Namun, para pemimpin Hongaria menerima penobatan Kaisar sebagai Raja Hongaria pada tanggal 8 Juni sebagai kebutuhan untuk memberlakukan undang-undang di tanah Mahkota Suci Hongaria . <ref name=":0" /> Pada tanggal 28 Juli, Franz Joseph, dalam kapasitas barunya sebagai Raja Hongaria, menyetujui dan mengumumkan undang-undang baru, yang secara resmi melahirkan Monarki Ganda.
=== 1866-1878: di luar ''Kleindeutschland'' ===
[[File:Sarajevo 1878..jpg|thumb|right|Perlawanan Muslim Bosnia selama pertempuran Sarajevo pada tahun 1878 melawan pendudukan Austria-Hongaria ]]
Monarki Ganda diciptakan setelah kalah perang pada tahun 1866 dengan Prusia dan Italia. Perang diakhiri dengan Perdamaian Praha (1866) yang menyelesaikan Pertanyaan Jerman demi Solusi Jerman Kecil . <ref name=":0" /> Untuk membangun kembali prestise Habsburg dan membalas dendam terhadap Prusia, Pangeran Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust menjadi menteri luar negeri (1866–1871). Dia membenci pemimpin Prusia, Otto von Bismarck , yang berkali-kali mengalahkannya. Beust melihat ke Prancis dan bernegosiasi dengan Kaisar Napoleon IIIdan Italia untuk aliansi anti-Prusia. Tidak ada syarat yang bisa dicapai. Kemenangan yang menentukan tentara Prusia-Jerman dalam perang tahun 1870 dengan Prancis dan berdirinya Kekaisaran Jerman mengakhiri semua harapan balas dendam dan Beust pensiun. <ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=4545476|title=Count Beust and Germany, 1866–1870: Reconquest, Realignment, or Resignation?|journal=Central European History|volume=1|issue=1|pages=20–34|last1=Schmitt|first1=Hans A.|year=1968|doi=10.1017/S000893890001476X|s2cid=144762108 }}</ref>
Setelah dipaksa keluar dari Jerman dan Italia, Dual Monarchy beralih ke Balkan, yang sedang kacau saat gerakan nasionalis memperoleh kekuatan dan menuntut kemerdekaan. Baik Rusia maupun Austria–Hongaria melihat peluang untuk berkembang di wilayah ini. Rusia berperan sebagai pelindung Slavia dan Kristen Ortodoks. Austria membayangkan sebuah kerajaan multi-etnis, beragam agama di bawah kendali Wina. Count Gyula Andrássy, seorang Hongaria yang menjadi Menteri Luar Negeri (1871 hingga 1879), menjadikan inti dari kebijakannya sebagai salah satu penentangan terhadap ekspansi Rusia di Balkan dan menghalangi ambisi Serbia untuk mendominasi federasi Slavia Selatan yang baru. Dia ingin Jerman bersekutu dengan Austria, bukan Rusia. <ref>William L. Langer, ''European Alliances and Alignments: 1871–1890'' (2nd ed. 1950) p. 20</ref>
=== '''1878–1914: Kongres Berlin, ketidakstabilan Balkan, dan Krisis Bosnia''' ===
{{Main|Kongres Berlin|Kekuasaan Austria-Hongaria di Bosnia dan Herzegovina|Krisis Bosnia}}
[[File:Archduke Eugen Bosniaks.jpg|thumb|left|Rekrutan dari Bosnia-Herzegovina, termasuk Muslim Bosnia (31%), direkrut menjadi unit khusus Angkatan Darat Austria-Hongaria sejak tahun 1879 dan dipuji atas keberanian mereka dalam melayani kaisar Austria, dianugerahi lebih banyak medali daripada unit lainnya. . Pawai militer ''Die Bosniaken Kommen'' disusun untuk menghormati mereka oleh Eduard Wagnes . <ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XkLDVyYZPBYC&pg=PA264|title=The Enemy at the Gate: Habsburgs, Ottomans and the Battle for Europe, p. 264|first=Andrew|last=Wheatcroft|isbn=978-0-7867-4454-1|date=28 April 2009}}</ref>]]
Organisasi Pan-Slavia Rusia mengirimkan bantuan kepada pemberontak Balkan dan menekan pemerintah tsar untuk menyatakan perang terhadap Kesultanan Utsmaniyah pada tahun 1877 atas nama melindungi umat Kristen Ortodoks. <ref name=":0" /> Tidak dapat menengahi antara Kesultanan Utsmaniyah dan Rusia atas kontrol Serbia, Austria-Hongaria menyatakan netralitas ketika konflik antara dua kekuatan meningkat menjadi perang . Dengan bantuan dari Rumania dan Yunani, Rusia mengalahkan Utsmaniyah dan dengan Perjanjian San Stefanomencoba membuat Bulgaria pro-Rusia yang besar. Perjanjian ini memicu kegemparan internasional yang hampir mengakibatkan perang Eropa secara umum. Austria–Hongaria dan Britania khawatir Bulgaria yang besar akan menjadi satelit Rusia yang memungkinkan tsar mendominasi Balkan. Perdana Menteri Britania Benjamin Disraeli memindahkan kapal perang ke posisinya melawan Rusia untuk menghentikan kemajuan pengaruh Rusia di Mediterania timur yang begitu dekat dengan rute Britania melalui Terusan Suez . <ref>Rene Albrecht-Carrie, ''A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna'' (1973) CH 6</ref>
When Russia defeated Turkey in a war the resulting Treaty of San Stefano was seen in Austria as much too favourable for Russia and its Orthodox-Slavic goals. The Congress of Berlin rolled back the Russian victory by partitioning the large Bulgarian state that Russia had carved out of Ottoman territory and denying any part of Bulgaria full independence from the Ottomans. The Congress of Berlin in 1878 let Austria occupy (but not annex) the province of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a predominantly Slavic area. Austria occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina as a way of gaining power in the Balkans. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania became fully independent. Nonetheless, the Balkans remained a site of political unrest with teeming ambition for independence and great power rivalries. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878 Gyula Andrássy (Minister of Foreign Affairs) managed to force Russia to retreat from further demands in the Balkans. As a result, Bulgaria Raya dipecah dan kemerdekaan Serbia dijamin. <ref name=":0" /> Pada tahun itu, dengan dukungan Britania, Austria–Hongaria menempatkan pasukan di Bosnia untuk mencegah Rusia melakukan ekspansi ke dekat Serbia. Dalam tindakan lain untuk menjaga Rusia keluar dari Balkan, Austria-Hongaria membentuk aliansi, Entente Mediterania, dengan Inggris dan Italia pada tahun 1887 dan menyimpulkan pakta pertahanan bersama dengan Jerman pada tahun 1879 dan Rumania pada tahun 1883 melawan kemungkinan serangan Rusia. <ref name=":0" /> Setelah Kongres Berlin, kekuatan Eropa berusaha untuk menjamin stabilitas melalui serangkaian aliansi dan perjanjian yang rumit.
Khawatir tentang ketidakstabilan Balkan dan agresi Rusia, dan untuk melawan kepentingan Prancis di Eropa, Austria–Hongaria menjalin aliansi pertahanan dengan Jerman pada bulan Oktober 1879 dan Mei 1882. Pada bulan Oktober 1882 Italia bergabung dalam kemitraan ini dalam Aliansi Tiga terutama karena persaingan kekaisaran Italia dengan Prancis. Ketegangan antara Rusia dan Austria–Hongaria tetap tinggi, jadi Bismarck mengganti Liga Tiga Kaisar dengan Perjanjian Reasuransi dengan Rusia untuk menjaga agar Habsburg tidak sembarangan memulai perang atas Pan-Slavisme. <ref name=":0" /> Sandžak -Raška / Novibazarwilayah itu berada di bawah pendudukan Austria-Hongaria antara tahun 1878 dan 1909, ketika dikembalikan ke Kesultanan Utsmaniyah, sebelum akhirnya dibagi antara kerajaan Montenegro dan Serbia . <ref name="Mount HolyOak">{{cite web|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos128.htm|title=The Austrian Occupation of Novibazar, 1878–1909|publisher=Mount HolyOak|access-date=24 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119180459/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos128.htm|archive-date=19 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>
Setelah Krisis Balkan Besar, pasukan Austro-Hongaria menduduki Bosnia dan Herzegovina pada Agustus 1878 dan monarki akhirnya menganeksasi Bosnia dan Herzegovina pada Oktober 1908 sebagai induk bersama atas Cisleithania dan Transleithania di bawah kendali Kementerian Keuangan Kerajaan & Kerajaan . daripada melampirkannya ke salah satu pemerintah teritorial. Aneksasi pada tahun 1908 membuat beberapa orang di Wina mempertimbangkan untuk menggabungkan Bosnia dan Herzegovina dengan Kroasia untuk membentuk komponen monarki Slavia ketiga. Kematian saudara laki-laki Franz Joseph, Maximilian (1867), dan putra satu-satunya, Rudolf , membuat keponakan Kaisar, Franz Ferdinand, pewaris takhta. Archduke dikabarkan telah mendukung trialisme ini sebagai sarana untuk membatasi kekuasaan aristokrasi Hongaria. <ref>Rene Albrecht-Carrie, ''A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna'' (1973) ch 8</ref>
Sebuah proklamasi yang dikeluarkan pada saat aneksasinya ke monarki Habsburg pada bulan Oktober 1908 menjanjikan lembaga-lembaga konstitusional tanah ini, yang akan menjamin hak-hak sipil penuh bagi penduduknya dan bagian dalam pengelolaan urusan mereka sendiri melalui dewan perwakilan lokal. Untuk memenuhi janji ini, sebuah konstitusi diundangkan pada tahun 1910. <ref name="Rene Albrecht-Carrie 1973 pp 259" />
Pemain utama dalam Krisis Bosnia 1908-09 adalah menteri luar negeri Austria dan Rusia, Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal dan Alexander Izvolsky . Keduanya dimotivasi oleh ambisi politik; yang pertama akan muncul dengan sukses, dan yang terakhir akan dihancurkan oleh krisis. Sepanjang jalan, mereka akan menyeret Eropa ke ambang perang pada tahun 1909. Mereka juga akan membagi Eropa menjadi dua kubu bersenjata yang akan berperang pada Juli 1914. <ref>Gooch, 1936, pp 366-438.</ref> <ref>Wank, 2020.</ref>
Di bawah Perjanjian Berlin , Utsmaniyah menguasai Dardanella langsung menghubungkan Mediterania dan Laut Hitam. Perjanjian itu melarang masuknya kapal perang apa pun dari negara mana pun ke atau keluar dari Laut Hitam. Perjanjian ini menghabiskan sebagian besar Armada Rusia, membuatnya tidak berguna dalam Perang Rusia-Jepangtahun 1904-1905 ketika sangat dibutuhkan. Izvolsky ingin perubahan ini memungkinkan lewatnya kapal Rusia melalui selat. Aehrenthal menginginkan kendali penuh atas Bosnia-Herzogovina. Austria-Hongaria telah mengelola provinsi-provinsi tersebut sejak 1878 tetapi Kesultanan Utsmaniyah tetap menjadi pemilik sah nominal. Aehrenthal membuat kesepakatan diplomatik besar yang menawarkan keuntungan besar bagi kedua belah pihak. Austria akan mendapatkan kepemilikan penuh atas Bosnia dengan persetujuan Rusia. Turkiye akan mendapatkan kendali penuh atas wilayah yang dikenal sebagai Sanjak Novi Pazar, ditambah uang tunai. Rusia akan mendapatkan hak lintas untuk kapal perangnya melalui Selat. Serbia akan mendapatkan nol. Sebelum mendekati Rusia, Aehrenthal bertemu dengan pejabat Austria dan mendapat persetujuan dari Kaisar Franz Joseph I. Pada tanggal 15-16 September Aehrenthal dan Izvolsky mengadakan pertemuan rahasia. Tidak ada catatan yang disimpan—dan setelah itu kedua belah pihak mengingatnya dengan sangat berbeda. Aehrenthal berasumsi bahwa dia mendapat persetujuan penuh dari Rusia untuk rencananya, tetapi dia tidak memberikan tanggal yang direncanakan. Izvolsky berasumsi bahwa dia akan diberi tahu sebelum tindakan yang sebenarnya terjadi. Aehrenthal samar-samar memberi tahu semua negara besar tetapi tidak memberikan perincian. Dunia tercengang pada 6 Oktober 1908, ketika siaran pers di Wina mengumumkan bahwa Bosnia dianeksasi sepenuhnya. Di dalam Austria ada persetujuan umum kecuali di wilayah Ceko—minoritas itu merasa tuntutannya sengaja diabaikan. Aehrenthal mengharapkan persetujuan Eropa yang luas dan sebaliknya dia menghadapi letusan gunung berapi yang bermusuhan dari segala arah. Izvolsky dengan keras mengecam pengkhianatan yang menuntut diadakannya konferensi internasional di Bosnia. Setelah beberapa dekade aktivitas tingkat rendah, pasukan pan-Slavia di dalam Rusia tiba-tiba dimobilisasi sebagai oposisi. Demonstrasi massal pecah di seluruh benua. Roma memanfaatkan situasi tersebut dengan membalikkan persahabatannya dengan Wina. Pejabat Berlin terkejut dan terkejut. Inggris sangat marah, mengecam pelanggaran perjanjian internasional yang ditandatangani oleh Austria dan Britania.<ref name=":0" />Prancis mengecam skema tersebut. Turkiye dikejutkan oleh perkembangan yang tidak terduga, tetapi ditenangkan oleh pembayaran tunai. Sejauh ini reaksi paling marah datang dari Serbia, yang menyerukan balas dendam, dan mulai membentuk kelompok gerilya rahasia, merencanakan pemberontakan di Bosnia. Di seluruh Eropa, kesalahan utama ditimpakan ke Berlin, bukan Wina. Orang Eropa takut akan tentara Jerman yang kuat dan menganggap episode itu sebagai bukti niat ekspansionisnya. Berlin sekarang menyadari bahwa ia berdiri sendiri, dengan Austria satu-satunya teman. Oleh karena itu memutuskan akan dengan tegas mendukung Austria meskipun ada keraguan tentang kebijaksanaan mencaplok Bosnia, Berlin secara eksplisit memperingatkan St Petersburg bahwa tuntutan lanjutan untuk konferensi internasional merupakan tindakan bermusuhan yang meningkatkan risiko perang dengan Jerman. Rusia mundur. Berkat intervensi Jerman, Austria mencetak keberhasilan diplomatik jangka pendek yang lengkap dalam mengambil kendali Bosnia. Namun dalam jangka panjang, Jerman dan Austria sama-sama membuat banyak musuh, karena garis pertempuran Perang Dunia I mulai mengeras. <ref>Arthur J. May, ''The Habsburg Monarchy 1867- 1914'' (Harvard University Press, 1965) pp. 412-424.</ref>
Aehrenthal memulai dengan asumsi bahwa minoritas Slavia tidak akan pernah bisa bersatu, dan Liga Balkan tidak akan pernah merusak Austria. Dia menolak proposal Utsmaniyah untuk aliansi yang akan mencakup Austria, Turkiye, dan Rumania. Namun kebijakannya mengasingkan orang Bulgaria, yang malah beralih ke Rusia dan Serbia. Meskipun Austria tidak berniat untuk memulai ekspansi tambahan ke selatan, Aehrenthal mendorong spekulasi untuk efek itu, dengan harapan akan melumpuhkan negara-negara Balkan. Sebaliknya, itu menghasut mereka untuk melakukan aktivitas demam untuk membuat blok pertahanan untuk menghentikan Austria. Serangkaian kesalahan perhitungan yang parah di tingkat tertinggi secara signifikan memperkuat musuh Austria. <ref>F.R. Bridge, ''From Sadowa to Sarajevo: the foreign policy of Austria-Hungary, 1866-1914'' (1972) pp 338-39.</ref>
Pada tahun 1914, militan Slavia di Bosnia menolak rencana Austria untuk menyerap sepenuhnya wilayah tersebut; mereka membunuh ahli waris Austria dan mempercepat Perang Dunia I. <ref>Langer, ''European Alliances and Alignments: 1871–1890'' pp. 138, 155–6, 163</ref>
===1914-1918: World War I===
{{Main|Causes of World War I}}
====Prelude====
{{Main|July Crisis}}
===== Sarajevo assassination =====
{{Main|Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand}}
[[File:Gavrilo Princip captured in Sarajevo 1914.jpg|thumb|This picture of the [[arrest of a suspect in Sarajevo]] is usually associated with the capture of [[Gavrilo Princip]], although some<ref name="FinestoneMassie">{{cite book|author1=Jeffrey Finestone|author2=Robert K. Massie|title=The last courts of Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-1cvAAAAMAAJ|year=1981|publisher=Dent|page=247|isbn=978-0-460-04519-3}}</ref><ref name="OneMorningSarajevo">{{cite book|author1=David James Smith|title=One Morning in Sarajevo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzsnSU9J5sAC|year=2010|publisher=Hachette UK|quote=He was photographed on the way to the station and the photograph has been reproduced many times in books and articles, claiming to depict the arrest of Gavrilo Princip. But there is no photograph of Gavro's arrest – this photograph shows the arrest of Behr.|isbn=978-0-297-85608-5}}</ref> believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.]]
On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited the Bosnian capital, [[Sarajevo]]. A group of six assassins ([[Cvjetko Popović]], [[Gavrilo Princip]], [[Muhamed Mehmedbašić]], [[Nedeljko Čabrinović]], [[Trifko Grabež]], [[Vaso Čubrilović]]) from the nationalist group [[Young Bosnia|Mlada Bosna]], supplied by the [[Black Hand (Serbia)|Black Hand]], had gathered on the street where the Archduke's motorcade would pass. Čabrinović threw a [[Hand grenade|grenade]] at the car, but missed. It injured some people nearby, and Franz Ferdinand's convoy could carry on. The other assassins failed to act as the cars drove past them quickly. About an hour later, when Franz Ferdinand was returning from a visit at the Sarajevo Hospital, the convoy took a wrong turn into a street where Gavrilo Princip by coincidence stood. With a pistol, Princip shot and killed Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. The reaction among the Austrian people was mild, almost indifferent. As historian Z. A. B. Zeman later wrote, "the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On Sunday and Monday [June 28 and 29], the crowds in Vienna listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened."<ref name="history"/>
=====Escalation of violence in Bosnia=====
{{Main|Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo|Schutzkorps}}
[[File:1914-06-29 - Aftermath of attacks against Serbs in Sarajevo.png|thumb|Crowds on the streets in the aftermath of the [[Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo]], 29 June 1914]]
The assassination excessively intensified the existing traditional religion-based ethnic hostilities in Bosnia. However, in Sarajevo itself, Austrian authorities encouraged<ref name="DjordjevićSpence1992">{{cite book|author1=Dimitrije Djordjević|author2=Richard B. Spence|title=Scholar, patriot, mentor: historical essays in honor of Dimitrije Djordjević|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CDJpAAAAMAAJ|year=1992|publisher=East European Monographs|isbn=978-0-88033-217-0|page=313|quote=Following the assassination of Franz Ferdinand in June 1914, Catholic Croats and Muslims in Sarajevo joined forces in an anti-Serb pogrom.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Reports Service: Southeast Europe series|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QGtWAAAAMAAJ|access-date=7 December 2013|year=1964|publisher=American Universities Field Staff.|page=44|quote=... the assassination was followed by officially encouraged anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo ...}}</ref> violence against the Serb residents, which resulted in the [[Anti-Serb riots of Sarajevo]], in which Catholic Croats and [[Bosnian Muslims]] killed two and damaged numerous Serb-owned buildings. Writer [[Ivo Andrić]] referred to the violence as the "Sarajevo frenzy of hate."<ref name="Gioseffi1993">{{cite book|author=Daniela Gioseffi|title=On Prejudice: A Global Perspective|url=https://archive.org/details/onprejudicegloba00gios_0|url-access=registration|access-date=2 September 2013|year=1993|publisher=Anchor Books|isbn=978-0-385-46938-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/onprejudicegloba00gios_0/page/246 246]|quote=... Andric describes the "Sarajevo frenzy of hate" that erupted among Muslims, Catholics, and Orthodox believers following the assassination on June 28, 1914, of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo ...}}</ref> Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were organized not only in Sarajevo but also in many other larger Austro-Hungarian cities in modern-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.<ref name="Mitrović2007">{{cite book|author=Andrej Mitrović|title=Serbia's Great War, 1914–1918|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=viqqqQ2KT7kC&pg=PA18|access-date=7 December 2013|year=2007|publisher=Purdue University Press|isbn=978-1-55753-477-4|page=19}}</ref> Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. 460 Serbs were sentenced to death and a predominantly Muslim<ref>{{harvnb|Tomasevich|2001|p=485}}{{blockquote|The Bosnian wartime militia (Schutzkorps), which became known for its persecution of Serbs, was overwhelmingly Muslim.}}</ref><ref name="Schindler2007">{{cite book|author=John R. Schindler|title=Unholy Terror: Bosnia, Al-Qa'ida, and the Rise of Global Jihad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8Xb6x2XYvIC&pg=PA29|year=2007|publisher=Zenith Imprint|isbn=978-1-61673-964-5|page=29}}</ref> special militia known as the ''[[Schutzkorps]]'' was established and carried out the persecution of Serbs.<ref name="Kröll2008">{{cite book|author=Herbert Kröll|title=Austrian-Greek encounters over the centuries: history, diplomacy, politics, arts, economics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJRnAAAAMAAJ|access-date=1 September 2013|date=28 February 2008|publisher=Studienverlag|isbn=978-3-7065-4526-6|page=55|quote=... arrested and interned some 5.500 prominent Serbs and sentenced to death some 460 persons, a new Schutzkorps, an auxiliary militia, widened the anti-Serb repression.}}</ref>
=====Decision for war=====
{{Main|Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I}}
While the empire's military spending had not even doubled since the 1878 Congress of Berlin, Germany's spending had risen five-fold, and the British, Russian, and French expenditures threefold. The empire had lost ethnic Italian areas to [[Piedmont]] because of nationalist movements that had swept through Italy, and many Austro-Hungarians perceived as imminent the threat of losing to Serbia the southern territories inhabited by Slavs. Serbia had recently gained considerable territory in the [[Second Balkan War]] of 1913, causing much distress in government circles in Vienna and Budapest. Former ambassador and foreign minister Count [[Alois Aehrenthal]] had assumed that any future war would be in the Balkan region.
Hungarian prime minister and political scientist [[István Tisza]] opposed the expansion of the monarchy in the Balkans (see Bosnian crisis in 1908) because "the Dual Monarchy already had too many Slavs", which would further threaten the integrity of the Dual Monarchy.<ref>William Jannen: Lions of July: Prelude to War, 1914 – PAGE:456</ref> In March 1914, Tisza wrote a memorandum to Emperor Franz Joseph with a strongly apocalyptic, predictive and embittered tone. He used the hitherto unknown word "Weltkrieg" (meaning World War). "It is my firm conviction that Germany's two neighbors [Russia and France] are carefully proceeding with military preparations, but will not start the war so long as they have not attained a grouping of the Balkan states against us that confronts the monarchy with an attack from three sides and pins down the majority of our forces on our eastern and southern front."<ref>David G. Herrmann: ''The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War'', p. 211, Princeton University Press (1997) {{ISBN|978-0-691-01595-8}}</ref>
[[File:MÁV armoured train.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[MÁVAG]] armoured train in 1914]]
On the day of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Tisza immediately traveled to Vienna where he met Minister of Foreign Affairs [[Count Leopold Berchtold]] and Army Commander [[Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf]]. They proposed to solve the dispute with arms, attacking Serbia. Tisza proposed to give the government of Serbia time to take a stand as to whether it was involved in the organisation of the murder and proposed a peaceful resolution, arguing that the international situation would settle soon. Returning to Budapest, he wrote to Emperor Franz Joseph saying he would not take any responsibility for the armed conflict because there was no proof that Serbia had plotted the assassination. Tisza opposed a war with Serbia, stating (correctly, as it turned out) that any war with the Serbs was bound to trigger a war with Russia and hence a general European war.<ref>Fischer, Fritz: Germany's Aims in the First World War, New York, W.W. Norton, 1967, {{ISBN|978-0-393-09798-6}}, p. 52</ref> He did not trust in the Italian alliance, due to the political aftermath of the Second Italian War of Independence. He thought that even a successful Austro-Hungarian war would be disastrous for the integrity of Kingdom of Hungary, where Hungary would be the next victim of Austrian politics. After a successful war against Serbia, Tisza foresaw a possible Austrian military attack against the Kingdom of Hungary, where the Austrians want to break up the territory of Hungary.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firstworldwar.com/bio/tisza.htm|title=First World War.com – Who's Who – Count Istvan Tisza de Boros-Jeno|publisher=firstworldwar.com|access-date=28 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140421135654/http://www.firstworldwar.com/bio/tisza.htm|archive-date=21 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
Some members of the government, such as Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, had wanted to confront the resurgent Serbian nation for some years in a preventive war, but the Emperor, 84 years old and an enemy of all adventures, disapproved.
The foreign ministry of Austro-Hungarian Empire sent ambassador [[László Szőgyény-Marich Jr.|László Szőgyény]] to [[Potsdam]], where he inquired about the standpoint of the [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|German Emperor]] on 5 July.
Szőgyény described what happened in a secret report to Vienna later that day:
{{Blockquote|I presented His Majesty [Wilhelm] with [Franz Joseph's] letter and the attached memorandum. The Kaiser read both papers quite carefully in my presence. First, His Majesty assured me that he had expected us to take firm action against Serbia, but he had to concede that, as a result of the conflicts facing [Franz Joseph], he needed to take into account a serious complication in Europe, which is why he did not wish to give any definite answer prior to consultations with the chancellor....
When, after our déjeuner, I once again emphasized the gravity of the situation, His Majesty authorized me to report to [Franz Joseph] that in this case, too, we could count on Germany's full support. As mentioned, he first had to consult with the Chancellor, but he did not have the slightest doubt that [[Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg|Herr von Bethmann Hollweg]] would fully agree with him, particularly with regard to action on our part against Serbia. In his [Wilhelm's] opinion, though, there was no need to wait patiently before taking action.
The Kaiser said that Russia's stance would always be a hostile one, but he had been prepared for this for many years, and even if war broke out between Austria–Hungary and Russia, we could rest assured that Germany would take our side, in line with its customary loyalty. According to the Kaiser, as things stood now, Russia was not at all ready for war. It would certainly have to think hard before making a call to arms.<ref>Source: Ladislaus Count von Szögyény-Marich (Berlin) to Leopold Count von Berchtold (5 July 1914), in Ludwig Bittner, et al., eds., Österreich-Ungarns Aussenpolitik von der Bosnischen Krise 1908 bis zum Kriegsausbruch 1914 [Austria–Hungary's Foreign Policy prior to the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 up to the Outbreak of War in 1914]. 8 vols, Vienna, 1930, vol. 8, no. 10,058.</ref>}}
But now the leaders of Austria–Hungary, especially General Count Leopold von Berchtold, backed by its ally Germany, decided to confront Serbia militarily before it could incite a revolt; using the assassination as an excuse, they presented a list of ten demands called the [[July Ultimatum]],<ref name="firstworldwar"/> expecting Serbia would never accept. When Serbia accepted nine of the ten demands but only partially accepted the remaining one, Austria–Hungary declared war. Franz Joseph I finally followed the urgent counsel of his top advisers.
Over the course of July and August 1914, these events caused the start of World War I, as Russia mobilized in support of Serbia, setting off a series of counter-mobilizations. In support of his German ally, on Thursday, 6 August 1914, Emperor Franz Joseph signed the declaration of war on Russia. Italy initially remained neutral, although it had an alliance with Austria–Hungary. In 1915, it switched to the side of the [[Triple Entente|Entente powers]], hoping to gain territory from its former ally.<ref>[[Chris Clark (historian)|Christopher Clark]], ''The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914'' pp. 420–30 (2013)</ref>
====Wartime foreign policy====
{{Further|Diplomatic history of World War I}}
[[File:Die verbündeten Monarchen mit ihren Feldherren im 1. Weltkrieg.jpg|thumb|[[Franz Josef I]] and [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]]<br />with military commanders during World War I]]
The Austro-Hungarian Empire played a relatively passive diplomatic role in the war, as it was increasingly dominated and controlled by Germany.<ref>A. F. Pribram, ''Austrian Foreign Policy, 1908–18'' (1923) pp 68–128.</ref><ref>Z.A.B. Zeman, ''A diplomatic history of the First World War'' (1971) pp 121–61.</ref> The only goal was to punish Serbia and try to stop the ethnic breakup of the Empire, and it completely failed. Starting in late 1916 the new Emperor Karl removed the pro-German officials and opened peace overtures to the Allies, whereby the entire war could be ended by compromise, or perhaps Austria would make a separate peace from Germany.<ref name="Stevenson, 1988 pp 139">Stevenson, ''The First World War and International Politics'' (1988) pp 139–48.</ref> The main effort was vetoed by Italy, which had been promised large slices of Austria for joining the Allies in 1915. Austria was only willing to turn over the Trentino region but nothing more.<ref>David Stevenson, "The failure of peace by negotiation in 1917." ''Historical Journal'' 34#1 (1991): 65–86.</ref> Karl was seen as a defeatist, which weakened his standing at home and with both the Allies and Germany.<ref>Edward P. Keleher, "Emperor Karl and the Sixtus Affair: Politico-Nationalist Repercussions in the Reich German and Austro-German Camps, and the Disintegration of Habsburg Austria, 1916–1918." ''East European Quarterly'' 26.2 (1992): 163+.</ref>
====Theaters of operations====
{{See also|Theater (warfare)}}
The Austro-Hungarian Empire conscripted 7.8 million soldiers during WWI.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EHI3PCjDtsUC&q=Direct+and+Indirect+Costs+of+the+Great+World+War&pg=PA172|title=The European Powers in the First World War|author=Spencer Tucker|year=1996|page=173|isbn=978-0-8153-0399-2}}</ref>
General von Hötzendorf was the Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff. Franz Joseph I, who was much too old to command the army, appointed [[Archduke Friedrich, Duke of Teschen|Archduke Friedrich von Österreich-Teschen]] as Supreme Army Commander (Armeeoberkommandant), but asked him to give Von Hötzendorf freedom to take any decisions. Von Hötzendorf remained in effective command of the military forces until Emperor Karl I took the supreme command himself in late 1916 and dismissed Conrad von Hötzendorf in 1917. Meanwhile, economic conditions on the homefront deteriorated rapidly. The Empire depended on agriculture, and agriculture depended on the heavy labor of millions of men who were now in the Army. Food production fell, the transportation system became overcrowded, and industrial production could not successfully handle the overwhelming need for munitions. Germany provided a great deal of help, but it was not enough. Furthermore, the political instability of the multiple ethnic groups of Empire now ripped apart any hope for national consensus in support of the war. Increasingly there was a demand for breaking up the Empire and setting up autonomous national states based on historic language-based cultures. The new Emperor sought peace terms from the Allies, but his initiatives were vetoed by Italy.<ref>Alexander Watson, ''Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria–Hungary in World War I'' (2014)</ref>
=====Homefront=====
{{See also|Hungary in World War I}}
The heavily rural Empire did have a small industrial base, but its major contribution was manpower and food.<ref name="Schulze2005">{{cite book|last=Schulze|first=Max-Stephan|s2cid=16455027|editor1-first=Stephen|editor1-last=Broadberry|editor1-link=Stephen Broadberry|editor2-first=Mark|editor2-last=Harrison|title=The Economics of World War I|chapter=Austria–Hungary's economy in World War I|chapter-url=https://www.library6.com/books/523600.pdf|year=2005|access-date=6 June 2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85212-8|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511497339.002|page=95|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929034223/https://www.library6.com/books/523600.pdf|archive-date=29 September 2018|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>Robert A. Kann, et al. eds. ''The Habsburg Empire in World War I: Essays on the Intellectual, Military, Political and Economic Aspects of the Habsburg War Effort'' (1977)</ref> Nevertheless, Austria–Hungary was more urbanized (25%)<ref>{{cite book|author=Mowat, C.L.|author-link=C. L. Mowat|title=The New Cambridge Modern History. volume xii|publisher=(CUP Archive)London: Cambridge University Press|page=479|year=1968|isbn=978-0-521-04551-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLg8AAAAIAAJ&q=%22urban+population%22++%22austria-hungary%22}}</ref> than its actual opponents in the First World War, like the Russian Empire (13.4%),<ref>{{cite book|author=Andreas Kappeler|title=The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History|publisher=Routledge|page=287|year=2014|isbn=978-1-317-56810-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZ9eBAAAQBAJ&q=%22russian+empire%22+urbanization}}</ref> Serbia (13.2%)<ref>{{cite book|author=Sima M. Cirkovic|title=The Serbs Volume 10 of The Peoples of Europe|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|page=235|year=2008|isbn=978-1-4051-4291-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Wc-DWRzoeIC&q=serbia+%22city+dwellers%22+1910}}</ref> or Romania (18.8%).<ref>{{cite book|author=Marius Rotar|title=History of Modern Cremation in Romania|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|page=24|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4438-4542-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fbgwBwAAQBAJ&q=%22kingdom+of+romania%22+rural}}</ref> Furthermore, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had also more industrialized economy<ref>{{cite book|author1=Stephen Broadberry|author2=Kevin H. O'Rourke|title=The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe: Volume 2, 1870 to the Present|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=70|year=2010|isbn=978-1-139-48951-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YHk0z-ujS3AC|access-date=28 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015202359/https://books.google.com/books?id=YHk0z-ujS3AC&;pg=PA70|archive-date=15 October 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and higher GDP per capita<ref>{{cite book|author=David Stevenson|title=With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=399|year=2011|isbn=978-0-674-06319-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DKn2zqoTPqQC&q=It+was+evenly+matched+against+Austria-Hungary}}</ref> than the Kingdom of Italy, which was economically the far most developed actual opponent of the Empire.
On the home front, food grew scarcer and scarcer, as did heating fuel. Hungary, with its heavy agricultural base, was somewhat better fed. The Army conquered productive agricultural areas in Romania and elsewhere, but refused to allow food shipments to civilians back home. Morale fell every year, and the diverse nationalities gave up on the Empire and looked for ways to establish their own nation states.<ref>Maureen Healy, ''Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire: Total War and Everyday Life in World War I'' (2007)</ref>
Inflation soared, from an index of 129 in 1914 to 1589 in 1918, wiping out the cash savings of the middle-class. In terms of war damage to the economy, the war used up about 20 percent of the GDP. The dead soldiers amounted to about four percent of the 1914 labor force, and the wounded ones to another six percent. Compared all the major countries in the war, the death and casualty rate was toward the high-end regarding the present-day territory of Austria.<ref name="Schulze2005"/>
By summer 1918, "[[Green Cadres]]" of army deserters formed armed bands in the hills of Croatia-Slavonia and civil authority disintegrated. By late October violence and massive looting erupted and there were efforts to form peasant republics. However, the Croatian political leadership was focused on creating a new state (Yugoslavia) and worked with the advancing Serbian army to impose control and end the uprisings.<ref>Ivo Banac, "'Emperor Karl Has Become a Comitadji': The Croatian Disturbances of Autumn 1918." ''Slavonic and East European Review'' 70#2 (1992): 284–305.</ref>
=====Serbian front 1914–1916=====
{{Main|Serbian Campaign (World War I)}}
At the start of the war, the army was divided into two: the smaller part attacked Serbia while the larger part fought against the formidable [[Imperial Russian Army]]. The invasion of Serbia in 1914 was a disaster: by the end of the year, the Austro-Hungarian Army had taken no territory, but had lost 227,000 out of a total force of 450,000 men. However, in the autumn of 1915, the Serbian Army was defeated by the Central Powers, which led to the occupation of Serbia. Near the end of 1915, in a massive rescue operation involving more than 1,000 trips made by Italian, French and British steamers, 260,000 Serb surviving soldiers were transported to [[Brindisi]] and [[Corfu]], where they waited for the chance of the victory of Allied Powers to reclaim their country. Corfu hosted the Serbian government in exile after the collapse of Serbia and served as a supply base to the Greek front. In April 1916 a large number of Serbian troops were transported in British and French naval vessels from Corfu to mainland Greece. The contingent numbering over 120,000 relieved a much smaller army at the [[Macedonian front]] and fought alongside British and French troops.<ref name="history1"/>
=====Russian front 1914–1917=====
{{Main|Eastern Front (World War I)}}
[[File:Szturm Twierdzy Przemysl A. Ritter von Meissl.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|[[Siege of Przemyśl]] in 1915]]
On the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern front]], the war started out equally poorly. The government accepted the Polish proposal of establishing the [[Supreme National Committee]] as the Polish central authority within the Empire, responsible for the formation of the [[Polish Legions in World War I|Polish Legions]], an auxiliary military formation within the Austro-Hungarian army. The Austro-Hungarian Army was defeated at the [[Battle of Galicia|Battle of Lemberg]] and the great fortress city of [[Siege of Przemyśl|Przemyśl was besieged]] and fell in March 1915. The [[Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive]] started as a minor German offensive to relieve the pressure of the Russian numerical superiority on the Austro-Hungarians, but the cooperation of the Central Powers resulted in huge Russian losses and the total collapse of the Russian lines and their {{convert|100|km|0|sp=us|abbr=on}} long retreat into Russia. The Russian Third Army perished. In summer 1915, the Austro-Hungarian Army, under a unified command with the Germans, participated in the successful Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive. From June 1916, the Russians focused their attacks on the Austro-Hungarian army in the [[Brusilov Offensive]], recognizing the numerical inferiority of the Austro-Hungarian army. By the end of September 1916, Austria–Hungary mobilized and concentrated new divisions, and the successful Russian advance was halted and slowly repelled; but the Austrian armies took heavy losses (about 1 million men) and never recovered. Nevertheless, the huge losses in men and material inflicted on the Russians during the offensive contributed greatly to the [[Russian Revolution|revolutions of 1917]], and it caused an economic crash in the Russian Empire.
The [[Act of 5 November]] 1916 was proclaimed then to the [[Polish people|Poles]] jointly by the Emperors [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] of Germany and Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary. This act promised the creation of the [[Kingdom of Poland (1916-1918)|Kingdom of Poland]] out of territory of [[Congress Poland]], envisioned by its authors as a [[puppet state]] controlled by the [[Central Powers]], with the nominal authority vested in the [[Regency Council (Poland)|Regency Council]]. The origin of that document was the dire need to draft new recruits from German-occupied Poland for the [[Eastern Front (WWI)|war with Russia]]. Following the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]] ending the World War I, in spite of the previous initial total dependence of the kingdom on its sponsors, it ultimately served against their intentions as the cornerstone [[proto state]] of the nascent [[Second Polish Republic]], the latter composed also of territories never intended by the Central Powers to be ceded to Poland.
The [[Battle of Zborov (1917)]] was the first significant action of the [[Czechoslovak Legions]], who fought for the independence of Czechoslovakia against the Austro-Hungarian army.
=====Italian front 1915–1918=====
{{Main|Italian Front (World War I)}}
[[File:Trento 3 novembre 1918.jpg|thumb|Italian troops in [[Trento]] on 3 November 1918, after the [[Battle of Vittorio Veneto]]. Italy's victory marked the end of the war on the [[Italian Front (World War I)|Italian Front]] and secured the dissolution of Austria–Hungary.<ref>{{cite book|last=Burgwyn|first=H. James|title=Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918–1940|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1997|page=4|isbn=978-0-275-94877-1}}</ref>]]
In May 1915, Italy attacked Austria–Hungary. Italy was the only military opponent of Austria–Hungary which had a similar degree of industrialization and economic level; moreover, her army was numerous (≈1,000,000 men were immediately fielded), but suffered from poor leadership, training and organization. [[Chief of Staff]] [[Luigi Cadorna]] marched his army towards the [[Isonzo]] river, hoping to seize Ljubljana, and to eventually threaten Vienna. However, the [[Royal Italian Army]] were halted on the river, where [[Battles of the Isonzo|four battles]] took place over five months (23 June – 2 December 1915). The fight was extremely bloody and exhausting for both the contenders.<ref>John R. Schindler, ''Isonzo: The Forgotten Sacrifice of the Great War'' (2001)</ref>
On 15 May 1916, the Austrian Chief of Staff Conrad von Hötzendorf launched the ''[[Battle of Asiago|Strafexpedition]]'' ("[[punitive expedition]]"): the Austrians broke through the opposing front and occupied the [[Asiago plateau]]. The Italians managed to resist and in a counteroffensive seized Gorizia on 9 August. Nonetheless, they had to stop on the [[Carso]], a few kilometres away from the border. At this point, several months of indecisive [[trench warfare]] ensued (analogous to the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western front]]). As the Russian Empire collapsed as a result of the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] and [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Russia–Central Powers)|Russians ended their involvement in the war]], Germans and Austrians were able to move on the Western and Southern fronts much manpower from the erstwhile Eastern fighting.
On 24 October 1917, Austrians (now enjoying decisive German support) attacked at [[Battle of Caporetto|Caporetto]] using new infiltration tactics; although they advanced more than {{convert|100|km|2|sp=us|abbr=on}} in the direction of Venice and gained considerable supplies, they were halted and could not cross the [[Piave (river)|Piave]] river. Italy, although suffering massive casualties, recovered from the blow, and a [[coalition government]] under [[Vittorio Emanuele Orlando]] was formed. Italy also enjoyed support by the Entente powers: by 1918, large amounts of war materials and a few auxiliary American, British, and French divisions arrived in the Italian battle zone.<ref>Gaetano V. Cavallaro (2010). The Beginning of Futility: Diplomatic, Political, Military and Naval Events on the Austro-Italian Front in the First World War 1914–1917 I. p. 339. {{ISBN|978-1-4010-8426-4}}.</ref> Cadorna was replaced by General [[Armando Diaz]]; under his command, the Italians retook the initiative and won the decisive [[Battle of the Piave river]] (15–23 June 1918), in which some 60,000 Austrian and 43,000 Italian soldiers were killed. The final battle was at [[Battle of Vittorio Veneto|Vittorio Veneto]]; after 4 days of stiff resistance, Italian troops crossed the Piave River, and after losing 90,000 men the defeated Austrian troops retreated in disarray pursued by the Italians. The Italians captured 448,000 Austrian-Hungarian soldiers (about one-third of the imperial-royal army), 24 of whom were generals,<ref>Pier Paolo Cervone, ''Vittorio Veneto, l'ultima battaglia'', Milano, Mursia, 1993.</ref> 5,600 cannons and mortars, and 4,000 [[Heavy machine guns|machine guns]].<ref>[[Indro Montanelli]]; Mario Cervi, ''Due secoli di guerre'', VII, Novara, Editoriale Nuova, 1981.</ref> The armistice was signed at [[Armistice of Villa Giusti|Villa Giusti]] on 3 November, in spite of Austria–Hungary already having disintegrated on 31 October 1918.
=====Romanian front 1916–1917=====
{{Main|Romania during World War I}}
On 27 August 1916, Romania declared war against Austria–Hungary. The [[Romanian Land Forces|Romanian Army]] crossed the borders of Eastern Hungary (Transylvania), and despite initial successes, by November 1916, the Central Powers formed by the Austro-Hungarian, German, Bulgarian, and Ottoman armies, had defeated the Romanian and Russian armies of the Entente Powers, and occupied the southern part of Romania (including [[Oltenia]], [[Muntenia]] and [[Dobruja]]). Within 3 months of the war, the Central Powers came near Bucharest, the Romanian capital city. On 6 December, the Central Powers captured [[Bucharest]], and part of the population moved to the unoccupied Romanian territory, in [[Western Moldavia|Moldavia]], together with the Romanian government, royal court and public authorities, which relocated to [[Iași]].<ref>Glenn E. Torrey, ''Romania and World War I'' (Histria Books, 1998)</ref>
In 1917, after several defensive victories (managing to stop the German-Austro-Hungarian advance), with Russia's withdrawal from the war following the October Revolution, Romania was forced to drop out of the war.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=2990|title=Gary W. Shanafelt. Review of Torrey, Glenn E., Romania and World War I: A Collection of Studies. HABSBURG, H-Net Reviews. April, 1999.}}</ref>
Whereas the German army realized it needed close cooperation from the homefront, Habsburg officers saw themselves as entirely separate from the civilian world, and superior to it. When they occupied productive areas, such as southern Romania,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/7632/1/JPN-Serbian-2014.pdf|title=Serbian and Habsburg Military institutional legacies in Yugoslavia after 1918|last=Newman|first=John|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190225162034/http://mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/7632/1/JPN-Serbian-2014.pdf|archive-date=25 February 2019|url-status=live|access-date=24 February 2019}}</ref> they seized food stocks and other supplies for their own purposes and blocked any shipments intended for civilians back in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The result was that the officers lived well, as the civilians began to starve. Vienna even transferred training units to Serbia and Poland for the sole purpose of feeding them. In all, the Army obtained about 15 percent of its cereal needs from occupied territories.<ref>Watson, ''Ring of Steel'' p 396-97</ref>
====Role of Hungary====
[[File:Csíkpálfalva2.JPG|thumb|War memorial in [[Păuleni-Ciuc]], Romania]]
Although the Kingdom of Hungary comprised only 42% of the population of Austria–Hungary,<ref>See: 1910 census</ref> the thin majority – more than 3.8 million soldiers – of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces were conscripted from the Kingdom of Hungary during the First World War. Roughly 600,000 soldiers were killed in action, and 700,000 soldiers were wounded in the war.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Buranbaeva|first1=Oksana|last2=Mladineo|first2=Vanja|title=Culture and Customs of Hungary, Cultures and Customs of the World|page=32|year=2011|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|location=Bonn, Germany|isbn=978-0-313-38370-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WK_130Hqbr4C&q=%22austria-hungary%22+%22kingdom+of+Hungary%22+million+soldiers&pg=PA32}}</ref>
Austria–Hungary held on for years, as the Hungarian half provided sufficient supplies for the military to continue to wage war.<ref name="B"/> This was shown in a transition of power after which the Hungarian prime minister, Count István Tisza, and foreign minister, Count [[István Burián]], had decisive influence over the internal and external affairs of the monarchy.<ref name="B"/> By late 1916, food supply from Hungary became intermittent and the government sought an armistice with the Entente powers. However, this failed as Britain and France no longer had any regard for the integrity of the monarchy because of Austro-Hungarian support for Germany.<ref name="B"/>
====Analysis of defeat====
The setbacks that the Austrian army suffered in 1914 and 1915 can be attributed to a large extent by the incompetence of the Austrian high command.<ref name="B"/> After attacking Serbia, its forces soon had to be withdrawn to protect its eastern frontier against Russia's invasion, while German units were engaged in fighting on the Western Front. This resulted in a greater than expected loss of men in the invasion of Serbia.<ref name="B"/> Furthermore, it became evident that the Austrian high command had had no plans for possible continental war and that the army and navy were also ill-equipped to handle such a conflict.<ref name="B"/>
In the last two years of the war the Austro-Hungarian armed forces lost all ability to act independently of Germany. As of 7 September 1916, the German emperor was given full control of all the armed forces of the Central Powers and Austria-Hungary effectively became a satellite of Germany.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bassett |first=Richard |title=For God and Kaiser: The Imperial Austrian Army, 1619-1918 |year= 2015|isbn= 9780300178586|publisher= Yale University Press|page=506 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_PzCAAAQBAJ&dq=the+Dual+Monarchy,+they+had+allowed+the+monarchy+to+become+a+satellite+of+a+military-dominated+Germany.+Just+as+they+had+not+wished+to+see&pg=PA506}}</ref> The Austrians viewed the [[German Army (German Empire)|German army]] favorably, on the other hand by 1916 the general belief in Germany was that Germany, in its alliance with Austria–Hungary, was "shackled to a corpse". The operational capability of the Austro-Hungarian army was seriously affected by supply shortages, low morale and a high casualty rate, and by the army's composition of multiple ethnicities with different languages and customs.
The last two successes for the Austrians, the Romanian Offensive and the Caporetto Offensive, were German-assisted operations. As the Dual Monarchy became more politically unstable, it became more and more dependent on German assistance. The majority of its people, other than Hungarians and German Austrians, became increasingly restless.
In 1917, the Eastern front of the Entente Powers completely collapsed. In spite of this, the Austro-Hungarian Empire then withdrew from all defeated countries due to its dire economic condition, as well as signs of impeding disintegration.
===1918: Demise, disintegration, dissolution===
{{Main|Dissolution of Austria-Hungary}}
====Demise====
By 1918, the economic situation had deteriorated. The government had failed badly on the homefront. Historian Alexander Watson reports:
{{blockquote|across central Europe ... The majority lived in a state of advanced misery by the spring of 1918, and conditions later worsened, for the summer of 1918 saw both the drop in food supplied to the levels of the '[[turnip winter]]', and the onset of the [[1918 flu pandemic]] that killed at least 20 million worldwide. Society was relieved, exhausted and yearned for peace.<ref>Alexander Watson, ''Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria–Hungary in World War I'' (2014), p 536</ref>}} As the Imperial economy collapsed into severe hardship and even starvation, its multi-ethnic army lost its morale and was increasingly hard-pressed to hold its line. At the last Italian offensive, the Austro-Hungarian Army took to the field without any food and munition supply and fought without any political supports for a ''de facto'' non-existent empire.
The Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed with dramatic speed in the autumn of 1918. Leftist and pacifist political movements organized strikes in factories, and uprisings in the army had become commonplace.<ref>Alexander Watson, ''Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria–Hungary at War, 1914–1918'' (2014). pp 536–40.</ref> These leftist or left-liberal pro-Entente maverick parties opposed the monarchy as a form of government and considered themselves internationalist rather than patriotic. Eventually, the German defeat and the minor revolutions in Vienna and Budapest gave political power to the left/liberal political parties.
====Disintegration====
As the war went on, the ethnic unity declined; the Allies encouraged breakaway demands from minorities and the Empire faced disintegration.<ref name="Stevenson, 1988 pp 139"/> As it became apparent that the Allied powers would win World War I, nationalist movements, which had previously been calling for a greater degree of autonomy for various areas, started pressing for full independence. In the capital cities of Vienna and Budapest, the leftist and liberal movements and opposition parties strengthened and supported the separatism of ethnic minorities. The multiethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire started to disintegrate, leaving its army alone on the battlefields. The military breakdown of the Italian front marked the start of the rebellion for the numerous ethnicities who made up the multiethnic Empire, as they refused to keep on fighting for a cause that now appeared senseless. The Emperor had lost much of his power to rule, as his realm disintegrated.<ref>Watson, ''Ring of Steel'' pp 536–40</ref>
As one of his [[Fourteen Points]], President [[Woodrow Wilson]] demanded that the nationalities of Austria–Hungary have the "freest opportunity to autonomous development". In response, Emperor Karl I agreed to reconvene the Imperial Parliament in 1917 and allow the creation of a confederation with each national group exercising self-governance. However, the leaders of these national groups rejected the idea; they deeply distrusted Vienna and were now determined to get independence.
[[File:Poprava vůdců rumburské vzpoury 1918.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The revolt of ethnic [[Czechs|Czech]] units in Austria in May 1918 was brutally suppressed. It was considered a [[mutiny]] by the code of [[military justice]].]]
On 14 October 1918, Foreign Minister Baron István Burián von Rajecz<ref name="mfa"/> asked for an armistice based on the Fourteen Points. In an apparent attempt to demonstrate good faith, Emperor Karl issued a proclamation ("Imperial Manifesto of 16 October 1918") two days later which would have significantly altered the structure of the Austrian half of the monarchy. The Polish majority regions of [[Lesser Poland]] and part of Galicia were to be granted the option of seceding from the empire to join the earlier established [[Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)|Polish proto-state]], in order to reunite with their ethnic brethren in the Polish lands held by Russia and Germany, with the ultimate goal of resurrecting the sovereign Polish statehood. In fact, the Regency Council in Warsaw already adopted on 6 October Wilson's proposals as the basis for creating a Polish state.<ref name="DavLukZaw">The Regency Kingdom has been referred to as a [[puppet state]] by [[Norman Davies]] in ''Europe: A history'' ([[iarchive:europehistory00davi_0/page/910|Internet Archive, p. 910]]); by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki in ''A Concise History of Poland'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=HMylRh-wHWEC&pg=PA218 Google Books, p. 218]); by Piotr J. Wroblel in ''Chronology of Polish History'' and ''Nation and History'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=lzWHDEE6OqkC&pg=PA454 Google Books, p. 454]); and by Raymond Leslie Buell in ''Poland: Key to Europe'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=-KcfGbrKptoC Google Books, p. 68]: "The Polish Kingdom... was merely a pawn [of Germany]").</ref> However, the imperial government attempted to curb the Polish ambitions by inciting the Polish-Ukrainian conflict through separating and retaining the remainder of Galicia and the entire [[Lodomeria]], designated in the secret [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Ukraine–Central Powers)]] for the purpose of creating a Ukrainian polity, intended in the proclamation to constitute along the rest of Cisleithania a transformed federal union composed of four parts—German, Czech, South Slav and Ukrainian. Each of these was to be governed by a national council that would negotiate the future of the empire with Vienna. Trieste was to receive a special status. No such proclamation could be issued in Hungary, where Hungarian aristocrats still believed they could subdue other nationalities and maintain the "Holy Kingdom of St. Stephen".
It was a dead letter. Four days later, on 18 October, United States Secretary of State [[Robert Lansing]] replied that the Allies were now committed to the causes of the Czechs, Slovaks and South Slavs. Therefore, Lansing said, autonomy for the nationalities – the tenth of the Fourteen Points – was no longer enough and Washington could not deal on the basis of the Fourteen Points anymore. In fact, a [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak provisional government]] had joined the Allies on 14 October. The South Slavs in both halves of the monarchy had already declared in favor of uniting with Serbia in a large South Slav state by way of the 1917 [[Corfu Declaration]] signed by members of the [[Yugoslav Committee]]. Indeed, the Croatians had begun disregarding orders from Budapest earlier in October. The Lansing note was, in effect, the death certificate of Austria–Hungary.
The national councils had already begun acting more or less as provisional governments of independent countries. During the Italian battles, the Czechoslovaks and Southern Slavs declared their independence. With defeat in the war imminent after the Italian offensive in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto on 24 October, Czech politicians peacefully took over command in Prague on 28 October (later declared the birthday of Czechoslovakia) and followed up in other major cities in the next few days. On 30 October, the Slovaks followed i Martin. On 29 October, the Slavs in both portions of what remained of Austria–Hungary proclaimed the [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]]. They also declared that their ultimate intention was to unite with Serbia and Montenegro in [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|a large South Slav state]]. On the same day, the Czechs and Slovaks formally proclaimed the establishment of Czechoslovakia as an independent state.
====Dissolution====
Alexander Watson argues that, "The Habsburg regime's doom was sealed when Wilson's response to the note, sent two and a half weeks earlier [by the foreign minister Baron István Burián von Rajecz on 14 October 1918 <ref name="mfa"/>], arrived on 20 October." Wilson rejected the continuation of the dual monarchy as a negotiable possibility.<ref>Watson, ''Ring of Steel'' pp. 541–2</ref>
On 17 October 1918, the [[Hungarian Parliament]] voted in favour of terminating the union with Austria. The most prominent opponent of continued union with Austria, Count [[Mihály Károlyi]], seized power in the [[Aster Revolution]] on 31 October. Charles was all but forced to appoint Károlyi as his Hungarian prime minister. One of Károlyi's first acts was to repudiate the compromise agreement on 31 October, effectively terminating the personal union with Austria and thus officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy state.
By the end of October, there was nothing left of the Habsburg realm but its majority-German Danubian and Alpine provinces, and Karl's authority was being challenged even there by the German-Austrian state council.<ref>Watson, ''Ring of Steel'' pp 542–56</ref> Karl's last Austrian prime minister, [[Heinrich Lammasch]], concluded that Karl's position was untenable. Lammasch persuaded Karl that the best course was to relinquish, at least temporarily, his right to exercise sovereign authority.
On 11 November, Karl issued a carefully worded proclamation in which he recognized the Austrian people's right to determine the form of the state and "relinquish(ed) every participation" in Austrian state affairs. He also dismissed Lammasch and his government from office<ref>[https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/emperor-karl-abdication-proclamation The 1918 Karl's proclamation]. British Library.</ref> and released the officials in the Austrian half of the empire from their oath of loyalty to him. Two days later, he issued a similar proclamation for Hungary.
Although this action has sometimes been construed as an abdication, Charles deliberately avoided using the term. He intended to remain available in the event the people of either state should recall him. Nevertheless, for all intents and purposes, this was the end of the Habsburg monarchy.
{{hidden begin
|title = Proclamation of Karl I<ref>[https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/emperor-karl-abdication-proclamation The Proclamation of the Abdication of Emperor Karl I of Austria]. British Library.</ref>
|titlestyle = background-color:lightgrey; font-style:italic; padding-right:3em; color:black; text-align: center;
|border = 1px solid black
|ta2 = center
}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
Since my ascent to the throne, I have been constantly trying to lead my people out of the horrors of war, which I am not responsible for.
I have not hesitated to restore constitutional life and have opened the way for peoples to develop their own state independently.
Still filled with unchangeable love for all My peoples, I do not want to oppose the free development of My Person as an obstacle.
I recognize in advance the decision that German Austria will make regarding its future form of government.
The people took over the government through their representatives. I waive any share in state affairs.
At the same time, I am releasing My Austrian Government from office.
May the people of German Austria create and consolidate the reorganization in harmony and forgiveness. The happiness of my peoples has been the goal of my most fervent wishes from the beginning.
Only inner peace can heal the wounds of this war.
{{col-break}}
Seit meiner thronbesteigung war ich unablässig bemüht, Meine Volker aus den Schrecknissen des Krieges herauszuführen, an dessen Ausbruch ich keinerlei Schuld trage.
Ich habe nicht gezögert, das verfassungsmaßige Leben wieder herzustellen und haben den Völkern den Weg zu ihrer selbständingen staatlichen Entwicklung eröffnet.
Nach wie vor von unwandelbarer Liebe für alle Meine Völker erfüllt, will ich ihrer freien Entfaltung Meine Person nicht als Hindernis entgegenstellen.
Im voraus erkenne ich die Entscheidung an, die Deutschösterreich über seine künftige Staatsform trifft.
Das Volk hat durch seine Vertreter die Regierung übernommen. Ich verzichte auf jeden Anteil an den Staatsgeschäften.
Gleichzeitig enthebe ich Meine österreichische Regierung ihres Amtes.
Möge das Volk von Deutschösterreich in Eintracht und Versöhnlichkeit die Neuordnung schaffen und befestigen. Das Glück Meiner Völker war von Anbeginn das Ziel Meiner heißesten Wünsche.
Nur der innere Friede kann die Wunden dieses Krieges heilen.
{{col-end}}
{{hidden end}}
Karl's refusal to abdicate was ultimately irrelevant. On the day after he announced his withdrawal from Austria's politics, the German-Austrian National Council proclaimed the [[Republic of German Austria]]. Károlyi followed suit on 16 November, proclaiming the [[Hungarian Democratic Republic]].
== Pembentukan Austria-Hongaria — Penggabungan 1867 ==
| |||