Penindasan Serikat Yesus: Perbedaan antara revisi
Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan
JohnThorne (bicara | kontrib) Dibuat dengan menerjemahkan halaman "Suppression of the Society of Jesus" |
JohnThorne (bicara | kontrib) Perbaikan |
||
Baris 1:
{{Jesuit}}
'''Penindasan kaum Yesuit''' di dalam [[Imperium Portugal|Kerajaan Portugis]] (1759), [[Kerajaan Perancis|Perancis]] (1764), [[Kerajaan Dua Sisilia|Dua Sisilia]], [[Malta]], [[Kadipaten Parma|Parma]], [[Imperium Spanyol|Kerajaan Spanyol]] (1767) serta Austria dan Hungaria (1782) adalah topik yang kompleks. Analisis alasannya diperumit oleh manuver politik di masing-masing negara yang tidak dilakukan secara terbuka, tetapi telah meninggalkan beberapa jejak bukti. Kepausan enggan menuruti tuntutan dari berbagai kerajaan Katolik yang terlibat, dan tidak mengajukan alasan teologis mengenai penindasan. Kekuasaan dan kekayaan [[Serikat Yesus]] dengan sistem pendidikan yang berpengaruh dihadapkan pada perlawanan pada saat terjadi perubahan budaya di Eropa, yang menuntun kepada revolusi yang mengikutinya.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14096a.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: The Suppression of the Jesuits (1770-1773)|website=www.newadvent.org|access-date=2017-12-15}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Roehner|first=Bertrand M.|title=Jesuits and the State: A Comparative Study of their Expulsions (1590–1990)|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WWN-45K13NX-V&_user=10&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F1997&_rdoc=8&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%237135%231997%23999729997%23303081%23FLT%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=7135&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=10&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=804093c2c26822619878dd0868c58ed0|year=April 1997|journal=Religion|volume=27|issue=2|pages=165–182|doi=10.1006/reli.1996.0048}}</ref> Monarki mencoba untuk memusatkan dan membangun sekularisasi kekuasaan politik dilihat oleh kaum [[Yesuit]] sebagai terlalu internasional, terlalu terkait dengan kepausan, dan terlalu otonom bagi raja-raja di wilayah yang mereka operasikan.<ref>Ida Altman et al., ''The Early History of Greater Mexico'', Pearson 2003, p. 310.</ref> Dengan surat singkat ''Dominus ac Redemptor'' (21 Juli 1773) [[Paus Klemens XIV|Paus Clement XIV]] menindas [[Yesuit|Serikat Yesus]], sebagai fait accompli dan tanpa memberikan alasan. Rusia, [[Prusia]], dan Amerika Serikat mengizinkan kaum Yesuit untuk melanjutkan pekerjaan mereka, dan [[Yekaterina II dari Rusia|Catherine the Great]] memperbolehkan pendirian [[novisiat]] baru di Rusia.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgF9DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA812&lpg=PA812&dq=society+of+jesus+during+suppression,+in+Russia&source=bl&ots=j_KbZbF4Dx&sig=9dEvf3tHVpsF8OX8MVwxSgR8-PE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjclq2HgOjSAhUIxoMKHYy2CJwQ6AEIeDAP#v=onepage&q=society%20of%20jesus%20during%20suppression%2C%20in%20Russia&f=false|title=Great Events in Religion|last=|first=|date=2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=|isbn=9781440845994|location=Denver|pages=812|accessdate=|authorlink=Eds. Florin Curta & Andrew Holt}}</ref> Segera setelah restorasi mereka oleh [[Paus Pius VII]] pada tahun 1814 Serikat Yesus mulai kembali ke sebagian besar tempat-tempat dari mana mereka telah diusir.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14100a.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: The Restored Jesuits (1814-1912)|website=www.newadvent.org|access-date=2017-03-21}}</ref>
<!--
==History==
===Background to Suppression===
Prior to the eighteenth-century suppression of the Jesuits in many countries, there was an early ban in territories of the [[Venetian Republic]] between 1606 and 1656/7, begun and ended as part of disputes between the Republic and the Papacy, beginning with the [[Venetian Interdict]].<ref>[http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=14555 Review by Giuseppe Gerbino (Department of Music, Columbia University)] of Edward Muir, ''The Culture Wars of the Late Renaissance: Skeptics, Libertines, and Opera'', Harvard University Press, 2007, {{ISBN|9780674024816}}, Published on H-Italy (June, 2008)</ref>
By the mid-18th century, the Society had acquired a reputation in Europe for political maneuvering and economic success. Monarchs in many European states grew progressively wary of what they saw as undue interference from a foreign entity. The expulsion of Jesuits from their states had the added benefit of allowing governments to impound the Society's accumulated wealth and possessions. However, historian [[Charles Gibson (historian)|Charles Gibson]] cautions, "[h]ow far this served as a motive for the expulsion we do not know."<ref>Charles Gibson, ''Spain in America'', New York: Harper and Row 1966, p. 83 footnote 28.</ref>
Various states took advantage of different events in order to take action. The series of political struggles between various monarchs, particularly France and Portugal, began with disputes over territory in 1750 and culminated in suspension of diplomatic relations and dissolution of the Society by the Pope over most of Europe, and even some executions. The [[Portuguese Empire]], [[France]], the [[Two Sicilies]], [[Parma]] and the [[Spain|Spanish Empire]] were involved to one degree or another.
The conflicts began with trade disputes, in 1750 in Portugal, in 1755 in France, and in the late 1750s in the Two Sicilies. In 1758 the government of [[Joseph I of Portugal]] took advantage of the waning powers of [[Pope Benedict XIV]] and deported Jesuits from South America after relocating the Jesuits and their native workers, and then fighting a brief conflict, formally suppressing the order in 1759. In 1762 the Parlement Français, (a court, not a legislature), ruled against the Society in a huge bankruptcy case under pressure from a host of groups – from within the Church but also secular notables and the [[Madame de Pompadour|king's mistress]]. Austria and the Two Sicilies suppressed the order by decree in 1767.
===Portugal and Its Empire 1759===
[[Image:Louis-Michel van Loo 003.jpg|thumb|350px|''The Marquis of Pombal'', who oversaw the suppression of the Jesuits in Portugal and its empire, by [[Louis-Michel van Loo]], 1766.]]
There were long-standing tensions between the Portuguese crown and the Jesuits, which increased when the [[Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal|Count of Oeiras]] (later the Marquis of Pombal) became the monarch's minister of state, culminating in the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1759. The [[Távora affair]] in 1758 could be considered a pretext for the expulsion and crown confiscation of Jesuit assets.<ref>James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz, ''Early Latin America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1983, p. 391.</ref> According to historians [[James Lockhart (historian)|James Lockhart]] and Stuart Schwartz, the Jesuits' "independence, power, wealth, control of education, and ties to Rome made the Jesuits obvious targets for Pombal's brand of extreme regalism."<ref>Lockhart and Schwartz, ''Early Latin America'', p. 391.</ref>
Portugal's quarrel with the Jesuits began over an exchange of South American colonial territory with Spain. By a secret treaty of 1750, Portugal relinquished to Spain the contested [[Colonia del Sacramento]] at the mouth of the [[Rio de la Plata]] in exchange for the Seven Reductions of Paraguay, the autonomous Jesuit missions that had been nominal Spanish colonial territory. The native [[Guaraní people|Guaraní]], who lived in the mission territories, were ordered to quit their country and settle across the Uruguay. Owing to the harsh conditions, the Guaraní rose in arms against the transfer, and the so-called [[Guaraní War]] ensued. It was a disaster for the Guaraní. In Portugal a battle escalated with inflammatory pamphlets denouncing or defending the Jesuits who for over a century had protected the Guarani from enslavement through a network of [[Jesuit reduction|Reduction]]<nowiki/>s, as depicted in [[The Mission (1986 film)|''The Mission'']]. The Portuguese colonizers secured the expulsion of the Jesuits,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ganson|first=Barbara|year=2003|title=The Guarani under Spanish Rule in the Rio de la Plata|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CG7fscxlgpUC&pg=PR9&dq=barbara+ganson+guarani#v=onepage&q=reductions&f=false|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=0-8047-5495-0}}</ref><ref name=Hungerford>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14096a.htm Pollen, John Hungerford. "The Suppression of the Jesuits (1750-1773)"] ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''. Vol. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 26 March 2014</ref>
On 1 April 1758, Pombal persuaded the aged [[Pope Benedict XIV]] to appoint the Portuguese [[Francisco de Saldanha da Gama|Cardinal Saldanha]] to investigate allegations against the Jesuits.<ref name=prestage>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12224b.htm Prestage, Edgar. "Marquis de Pombal"] ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 26 March 2014</ref> Benedict was skeptical as to the gravity of the alleged abuses. He ordered a "minute inquiry", but so as to safeguard the reputation of the Society, all serious matters were to be referred back to him. Benedict died the following month on May 3. On May 15 Saldanha, having received the papal brief only a fortnight before, declared that the Jesuits were guilty of having exercised "illicit, public, and scandalous commerce," both in Portugal and in its colonies. He had not visited Jesuit houses as ordered, and pronounced on the issues which the pope had reserved to himself.<ref name=Hungerford/>
Pombal implicated the Jesuits in the [[Távora affair]], an attempted assassination of the king on 3 September 1758, on the grounds of their friendship with some of the supposed conspirators. On 19 January 1759, he issued a decree sequestering the property of the Society in the Portuguese dominions and the following September deported the Portuguese fathers, about one thousand in number, to the Pontifical States, keeping the foreigners in prison. Among those arrested and executed was the then denounced [[Gabriel Malagrida]], the Jesuit confessor of [[Leonor Tomásia de Távora, 3rd Marquise of Távora|Leonor of Távora]], for "crimes against the faith". After Malagrida's execution in 1759, the Society was suppressed by the Portuguese crown. The Portuguese ambassador was recalled from Rome and the [[papal nuncio]] expelled. Diplomatic relations between Portugal and Rome were broken off until 1770.<ref name=prestage/>
===Suppression in France 1764===
The suppression of the Jesuits in France began in the French island colony of [[Martinique]], where the Society of Jesus had a major commercial stake in sugar plantations worked by black slave and free labor. Their large mission plantations included large local populations that worked under the usual conditions of tropical colonial agriculture of the 18th century. The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' in 1908 said that missionaries occupying themselves personally in selling off the goods produced (an anomaly for a religious order) "was allowed partly to provide for the current expenses of the mission, partly in order to protect the simple, childlike natives from the common plague of dishonest intermediaries."
Father [[Antoine La Vallette]], Superior of the Martinique missions, borrowed money to expand the large undeveloped resources of the colony. But on the [[Seven Years' War|outbreak of war with England]], ships carrying goods of an estimated value of 2,000,000 ''livres'' were captured, and La Vallette suddenly went bankrupt for a very large sum. His creditors turned to the Jesuit procurator in Paris to demand payment, but he refused responsibility for the debts of an independent mission – though he offered to negotiate for a settlement. The creditors went to the courts and received a favorable decision in 1760 obliging the Society to pay, and giving leave to [[Wiktionary:distrain|distrain]] in the case of non-payment. The Jesuits, on the advice of their lawyers, appealed to the [[Parlement]] of Paris. This turned out to be an imprudent step for their interests. Not only did the Parlement support the lower court on 8 May 1761, but having once gotten the case into its hands, the Jesuits' opponents in that assembly determined to strike a blow at the Order.
The Jesuits had many who opposed them. The [[Jansenist]]s were numerous among the enemies of the orthodox party. The [[College of Sorbonne|Sorbonne]], an educational rival, joined the [[Gallican Church|Gallican]]s, the ''[[Philosophes]]'', and the [[Encyclopédie|Encyclopédistes]]. [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]] was weak; his wife and children were in favor of the Jesuits; his able first minister, the [[Étienne François, duc de Choiseul|Duc de Choiseul]], played into the hands of the Parlement and the royal mistress, [[Madame de Pompadour]], to whom the Jesuits had refused absolution for she was living in sin with the King of France, was a determined opponent. The determination of the Parlement of Paris in time bore down all opposition.
The attack on the Jesuits was opened on 17 April 1762 by the Jansenist sympathizer the [[Abbé Chauvelin]] who denounced the Constitution of the Society of Jesus, which was publicly examined and discussed in a hostile press. The Parlement issued its ''Extraits des assertions'' assembled from passages from Jesuit theologians and canonists, in which they were alleged to teach every sort of immorality and error. On 6 August 1762, the final ''arrêt'' was proposed to the Parlement by the Advocate General [[Joseph Omer Joly de Fleury|Joly de Fleury]], condemning the Society to extinction, but the king's intervention brought eight months' delay and in the meantime a compromise was suggested by the Court. If the French Jesuits would separate from the Society headed by the Jesuit General directly under the pope's authority and come under a French vicar, with French customs, as with the [[Gallican Church]], the Crown would still protect them. The French Jesuits, rejecting [[Gallicanism]], refused to consent. On 1 April 1763, the colleges were closed, and by a further ''arrêt'' of March 9, 1764, the Jesuits were required to renounce their vows under pain of banishment. At the end of November 1764, the king signed an edict dissolving the Society throughout his dominions, for they were still protected by some provincial parlements, as in [[Franche-Comté]], [[Alsace]], and [[Artois]]. In the draft of the edict, he canceled numerous clauses that implied that the Society was guilty, and writing to Choiseul he concluded: "If I adopt the advice of others for the peace of my realm, you must make the changes I propose, or I will do nothing. I say no more, lest I should say too much."<ref name=":0" />
====Decline of the Jesuits in New France following its conquest by the British====
Following the British 1759 victory against the French in [[Quebec]], France lost its North American territory of [[New France]] where Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth century had been active among indigenous peoples. British rule had implications for Jesuits in New France, but their numbers and sites were already in decline. As early as 1700, the Jesuits had adopted a policy of merely maintaining their existing posts instead of trying to establish new ones beyond [[Quebec]], [[Montreal]], and [[Ottawa]].<ref>J.H. Kennedy. ''Jesuit and Savage in New France'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), 49.</ref> Once New France was under British control, the British barred the immigration of any further Jesuits. By 1763 there were only twenty-one Jesuits still stationed in what was now the British colony of Quebec. By 1773 only eleven Jesuits remained. In the same year the British crown laid claim to Jesuit property in Canada and declared that the Society of Jesus in New France was dissolved.<ref>J.H. Kennedy. ''Jesuit and Savage in New France'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), 53.</ref>
===Spanish Empire 1767===
[[File:Charles III of Spain high resolution.jpg|thumb|Charles III of Spain, who ordered the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spanish realms]]
The Suppression in Spain and in the Spanish colonies, and in its dependency the [[Kingdom of Naples]], was the last of the expulsions, with Portugal (1759) and France (1764) having already set the pattern. The Spanish crown had already begun a series of administrative and other changes in their overseas empire, such as reorganizing the viceroyalties, rethinking economic policies, and establishing a military, so that the expulsion of the Jesuits is seen as part of this general trend known generally as the [[Bourbon Reforms]]. The aim of the reforms was to curb the increasing autonomy and self-confidence of American-born Spaniards, reassert crown control, and increase revenues.<ref>Virginia Guedea, "The Old Colonialism Ends, the New Colonialism Begins", in ''The Oxford History of Mexico'', edited by Michael Meyer and William Beezley, New York: Oxford University Press 2000, p278..</ref> Some historians doubt that the Jesuits were guilty of intrigues against the Spanish crown that were used as the immediate cause for the expulsion.<ref>James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz, ''Early Latin America'', New York: Cambridge University Press 1983, p. 350.</ref>
Contemporaries in Spain attributed the suppression of the Jesuits to the [[Esquilache Riots]], named after the Italian advisor to Bourbon king [[Charles III of Spain|Carlos III]], that erupted after a [[sumptuary law]] was enacted. The law, placing restrictions on men's wearing of voluminous capes and limiting the breadth of sombreros the men could wear, was seen as an "insult to Castilian pride."<ref>[[David Brading|D.A. Brading]], ''The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492-1867''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991, 499.</ref>
[[File:Esquilache riots.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''Motín de Esquilache'', Madrid, attributed to [[Francisco de Goya]] (ca. 1766, 1767)]]
When an angry crowd of those resisters converged on the royal palace, king Carlos fled to the countryside. The crowd had shouted "Long Live Spain! Death to Esquilache!" His Flemish palace guard fired warning shots over the people's heads. An account says that a group of Jesuit priests appeared on the scene, soothed the protesters with speeches, and sent them home. Carlos decided to rescind the tax hike and hat-trimming edict, and to fire his finance minister.<ref>Manfred Barthel. ''The Jesuits: History and Legend of the Society of Jesus''. Translated and adapted from the German by Mark Howson. William Morrow & Co., 1984, pp. 222-3.</ref>
The monarch and his advisers were alarmed by the uprising, which challenged royal authority and the Jesuits were accused of inciting the mob and publicly accusing the monarch of religious crimes. [[Pedro Rodríguez de Campomanes]], attorney for the Council of Castile, the body overseeing central Spain, articulated this view in a report the king read.<ref name="The First America p. 499">[[David Brading|D.A. Brading]], ''The First America'', p. 499.</ref> Charles III ordered the convening of a special royal commission to draw up a master plan to expel the Jesuits. The commission first met in January 1767. It modeled its plan on the tactics deployed by France's [[Philip IV of France|Philip IV]] against the [[Knights Templar]] in 1307 – emphasizing the element of surprise.<ref>Manfred Barthel. ''The Jesuits: History and Legend of the Society of Jesus''. Translated and adapted from the German by Mark Howson. William Morrow & Co., 1984, p. 223.</ref> Charles's adviser Campomanes had written a treatise on the Templars in 1747, which may have informed the implementation of the Jesuit suppression.<ref>Pedro Rodríguez de Campomanes, ''Dissertaciones históricas del orden, y Cavallería de los templarios, o resumen historial de sus principios, fundación, instituto, progressos, y extinción en el Concilio de Viena. Y un apéndice, o suplemento, en que se pone la regla de esta orden, y diferentes Privilegios de ella, con muchas Dissertaciones, y Notas, tocantes no solo à esta Orden, sino à las de S. Juan, Teutonicos, Santiago, Calatrava, Alcantara, Avis, Montesa, Christo, Monfrac, y otras Iglesias, y Monasterios de España, con varios Cathalogos de Maestres''. Madrid: Oficina de Antonio Pérez de Soto.</ref> One historian states that "Charles III never would have dared to expel the Jesuits had he not been assured of the support of an influential party within the Spanish Church."<ref name="The First America p. 499"/> [[Jansenist]]s and mendicant orders had long opposed the Jesuits and sought to curtail their power.
====Secret Plan of Expulsion====
[[File:Pompeo Batoni - Retrato de D. Manuel de Roda - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|[[Manuel de Roda]], adviser to Charles III, who brought together an alliance of those opposed to the Jesuits]]
King Charles's ministers kept their deliberations to themselves, as did the king, who acted upon "urgent, just, and necessary reasons, which I reserve in my royal mind." The correspondence of [[Bernardo Tanucci]], Charles's anti-clerical minister in [[Naples]], contains the ideas which, from time to time, guided Spanish policy. Charles conducted his government through the [[Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, 10th Count of Aranda|Count of Aranda]], a reader of [[Voltaire]], and other liberals.<ref name=":0" />
The commission's meeting on 29 January 1767 planned the expulsion of the Jesuits. Secret orders, to be opened at sunrise on April 2, were sent to all provincial viceroys and district military commanders in Spain. Each sealed envelope contained two documents. One was a copy of the original order expelling "all members of the Society of Jesus" from Charles's Spanish domains and confiscating all their goods. The other instructed local officials to surround the Jesuit colleges and residences on the night of April 2, arrest the Jesuits, and arrange their passage to ships awaiting them at various ports. King Carlos' closing sentence read: "If a single Jesuit, even though sick or dying, is still to be found in the area under your command after the embarkation, prepare yourself to face summary execution."<ref>Manfred Barthel. ''The Jesuits: History and Legend of the Society of Jesus''. Translated and adapted from the German by Mark Howson. William Morrow & Co., 1984, pp. 223-4.</ref>
[[Pope Clement XIII]], presented with a similar ultimatum by the Spanish ambassador to the Vatican a few days before the decree would take effect, asked King Charles "by what authority?" and threatened him with eternal damnation. Pope Clement had no means to enforce his protest and the expulsion took place as planned.<ref>Manfred Barthel. ''The Jesuits: History and Legend of the Society of Jesus''. Translated and adapted from the German by Mark Howson. William Morrow & Co., 1984, pp. 224-6.</ref>
====Jesuits expelled from Mexico (New Spain)====
[[Image:José de Gálvez.jpg|thumb|left|[[José de Gálvez]], ''Visitador generál'' in New Spain (1765-71), was instrumental in the Jesuit expulsion in 1767 in Mexico, considered part of the [[Bourbon Reforms]].]]
In [[New Spain]], the Jesuits had actively evangelized the Indians on the northern frontier. But their main activity involved educating elite [[Criollo people|''criollo'']] (American-born Spanish) men, many of whom themselves became Jesuits. Of the 678 Jesuits expelled from Mexico, 75% were Mexican-born. In late June 1767, Spanish soldiers removed the Jesuits from their 16 missions and 32 stations in Mexico. No Jesuit, no matter how old or ill, could be excepted from the king's decree. Many died on the trek along the cactus-studded trail to the Gulf Coast port of Veracruz, where ships awaited them to transport them to Italian exile.<ref>Don DeNevi and Noel Francis Moholy. ''Junípero Serra: The Illustrated Story of the Franciscan Founder of California's Missions''. Harper & Row, 1985, p. 7.</ref>
There were protests in Mexico at the exile of so many Jesuit members of elite families. But the Jesuits themselves obeyed the order. Since the Jesuits had owned extensive landed estates in Mexico – which supported both their evangelization of indigenous peoples and their education mission to criollo elites – the properties became a source of wealth for the crown. The crown auctioned them off, benefiting the treasury, and their criollo purchasers gained productive well-run properties.<ref name="Charles Gibson p.83-84"/><ref>Ida Altman et al., ''The Early History of Greater Mexico'', Pearson 2003, pp. 310-11.</ref> Many criollo families felt outraged at the crown's actions, regarding it as a "despotic act."<ref>Susan Deans-Smith, "Bourbon Reforms", ''Encyclopedia of Mexico: History, Society, Culture'', volume 1. Michael S. Werner, ed., Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 153-154.</ref> One well-known Mexican Jesuit, [[Francisco Javier Clavijero]], during his Italian exile wrote an important history of Mexico with emphasis on the indigenous peoples.<ref>[[David Brading|D.A. Brading]], ''The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492-1867''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991, pp. 453-58.</ref> [[Alexander von Humboldt]], the famous German scientist who spent a year in Mexico in 1803-04, praised Clavijero's work on the history of Mexico's indigenous peoples.<ref>[[David Brading|D.A. Brading]], ''The First America'', pp. 523-24, 526-7.</ref>
[[File:Francisco Xavier Clavijero,.jpg|thumb|[[Francisco Javier Clavijero]], Mexican Jesuit exiled to Italy. His history of ancient Mexico was a significant text for pride for contemporaries in New Spain. He is revered in modern Mexico as a creole patriot.]]
Due to the isolation of the Spanish missions on the [[Baja California peninsula]], the expulsion decree did not arrive in Baja in June 1767, as in the rest of New Spain. It got delayed until the new governor, [[Gaspar de Portolá]], arrived with the news and decree on November 30. By 3 February 1768, Portolá's soldiers had removed Baja's 16 Jesuit missionaries from their posts and gathered them in [[Loreto, Baja California Sur|Loreto]], whence they sailed to the Mexican mainland and thence to Europe. Showing sympathy for the Jesuits, Portolá treated them kindly even as he put an end to their 70 years of mission-building in Baja.<ref>Maynard Geiger. ''The Life and Times of Fray Junípero Serra: The Man Who Never Turned Back.'' Academy of American Franciscan History, 1959, vol. 1, pp. 182-3.</ref> The Jesuit missions in Baja California were turned over to the Franciscans and the future missions in [[Alta California]] were founded by Franciscans.<ref>Robert Michael Van Handel, "The Jesuit and Franciscan Missions in Baja California." M.A. thesis. University of California, Santa Barbara, 1991.</ref>
The change in the Spanish colonies in the New World was particularly great, as the far-flung settlements were often dominated by missions. Almost overnight in the mission towns of Sonora and Arizona, the "black robes" (Jesuits) disappeared and the "gray robes" ([[Franciscan]]s) replaced them.<ref>{{cite book |first=Richard F. |last=Pourade |title=The History of San Diego |chapter=6: Padres Lead the Way |url= http://www.sandiegohistory.org/books/pourade/explorers/explorerschapter6.htm |year=2014 |accessdate=20 February 2014}}</ref>
====Philippines====
The royal decree expelling the Society of Jesus from Spain and its dominions reached [[Manila]] on 17 May 1768. Between 1769 and 1771, the Jesuits were transported from the [[Spanish East Indies]] to Spain and from there deported to Italy.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.phjesuits.org/portal/jesuits-in-the-philippines/ |title=Jesuits in the Philippines: From Mission to Province (1581-1768) |first=Horacio |last=de la Costa |work=Philippine Jesuits |year=2014 |accessdate=20 February 2014}}</ref>
====Jesuit exile to Italy====
[[Image:Tanucci Bernardo 01.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Bernardo Tanucci]], adviser to Charles III, instrumental in the expulsion of the Jesuits in Naples]]
Spanish soldiers rounded up the Jesuits in Mexico, marched them to the coasts, and placed them below the decks of Spanish warships headed for the Italian port of [[Civitavecchia]] in the [[Papal States]]. When they arrived, [[Pope Clement XIII]] refused to allow the ships to unload their prisoners onto papal territory. Fired upon by batteries of artillery from the shore of Civitavecchia, the Spanish warships had to look for an anchorage off the island of [[Corsica]], then a dependency of Genoa. But since a rebellion had erupted on Corsica, it took five months before some of the Jesuits could set foot on land.<ref name=":0" />
Several historians have estimated the number of Jesuits deported at 6,000. But it is not clear whether this figure encompasses Spain alone or extends to Spain's overseas colonies (notably Mexico and the Philippines) as well.<ref>Manfred Barthel. ''The Jesuits: History and Legend of the Society of Jesus''. Translated and adapted from the German by Mark Howson. William Morrow & Co., 1984, p. 225, footnote.</ref> Jesuit historian Hubert Becher claims that about 600 Jesuits died during their voyage and waiting ordeal.<ref>Hubert Becher, SJ. ''Die Jesuiten: Gestalt und Geschichte des Ordens''. Munich, 1951.</ref>
In [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], king Carlos' minister [[Bernardo Tanucci]] pursued a similar policy: On November 3 the Jesuits, with no accusation or trial, were marched across the border into the Papal States and threatened with death if they returned.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14096a.htm|title=Catholic Encyclopedia|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref>
Historian [[Charles Gibson (historian)|Charles Gibson]] calls the Spanish crown's expulsion of the Jesuits a "sudden and devastating move" to assert royal control.<ref name="Charles Gibson p.83-84">Charles Gibson, ''Spain in America'', New York: Harper and Row, p.83-84.</ref> However, the Jesuits became a vulnerable target for the crown's moves to assert more control over the church; also some religious and diocesan clergy and civil authorities were hostile to them, and they did not protest their expulsion.<ref>Lockhart and Schwartz, ibid.</ref><ref>Clarence Haring, ''The Spanish Empire in America'', Oxford University Press, 1947, p. 206.</ref> There were popular protests in some areas against the expulsion, including Mexico, which the crown put down by force. According to historian [[Clarence Haring]], however, "royal magistrates and prelates seemed to vie with one another in carrying out the royal orders."<ref>Haring, ibid.</ref>
In addition to 1767, the Jesuits were suppressed and banned twice more in Spain, in 1834 and in 1932. Spanish ruler [[Francisco Franco]] rescinded the last suppression in 1938.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}
====Economic impact in the Spanish Empire====
The suppression of the order had longstanding economic effects in the Americas, particularly those areas where they had their missions or [[Jesuit Reductions|reductions]] – outlying areas dominated by indigenous peoples such as [[Paraguay]] and [[Chiloé Archipelago]]. In Central Chile the suppression of the Order led among other things to a sharp decrease in the import of black slaves from Peru, which although small in comparison to neighboring colonies had led the Order to own the largest number of black slaves in Chile, 1300 approximately.{{fact|date=November 2017}} In [[Misiones]], in modern-day Argentina, their suppression led to the scattering and enslavement of indigenous [[Guaraní people|Guaraní]]s living in the reductions and a long-term decline in the [[yerba mate]] industry from which it only recovered in the 20th century.<ref name=Daumas>{{cite book |first=Ernesto |last=Daumas |year=1930 |title=El problema de la yerba mate |location=Buenos Aires |publisher=Compañia Impresora Argentina|language=Spanish}}</ref>
With the suppression of the Society of Jesus in Spanish America, Jesuit vineyards in [[Peru]] were auctioned, but new owners did not have the same expertise as the Jesuits, contributing to a decline in production of wine and [[pisco]].<ref name=Lacoste>{{cite journal |url= http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-23762004000200005&script=sci_arttext&tlng=es |title=La vid y el vino en América del Sur: el desplazamiento de los polos vitivinícolas (siglos XVI al XX) |first=Pablo |last=Lacoste |journal=[[Revista Universum|Universum]] |publisher=[[University of Talca]] |year=2004 |accessdate=20 February 2014|language=Spanish}}</ref>
===Suppression in Malta===
[[Malta]] was at the time a vassal of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], and Grandmaster [[Manuel Pinto da Fonseca]], himself a Portuguese, followed suit, expelling the Jesuits from the island and seizing their assets. These assets were used in establishing the [[University of Malta]] by a decree signed by Pinto on 22 November 1769, with lasting effect on the social and cultural life of Malta.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.um.edu.mt/about/uom/history |title=History of the University |publisher=[[University of Malta]] |year=2014 |accessdate=20 February 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110630011016/http://www.um.edu.mt/about/uom/history |archivedate=30 June 2011 |df= }}</ref> The [[Church of the Jesuits]] (in [[Maltese language|Maltese]] {{lang|mt|Knisja tal-Ġiżwiti}}), one of the oldest churches in [[Valletta]], retains this name up to the present.
===Parma===
The independent [[Duchy of Parma]] was the smallest Bourbon court. So aggressive in its anti-clericalism was the Parmesan reaction to the news of the expulsion of the Jesuits from [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], that Pope [[Pope Clement XIII|Clement XIII]] addressed a public warning against it on 30 January 1768, threatening the Duchy with ecclesiastical censures. At this, all the Bourbon courts turned against the [[Holy See]], demanding the entire dissolution of the Jesuits. Parma expelled the Jesuits from its territories, confiscating their possessions.<ref name=":0">Vogel, Christine: [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2010101123 ''The Suppression of the Society of Jesus, 1758–1773''], [[European History Online]], Mainz: [[Institute of European History]], 2011, retrieved: November 11, 2011.</ref>
===Poland and Lithuania===
The Jesuit order was disbanded in the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] in 1773. However, branches in the lands of the [[Russian Partition]] of the [[First Partition of Poland]] were not disbanded, as Russian Empress Catherine did not acknowledge the Papal order.<ref name=pl>{{cite web |url= http://jezuici.pl/kasata-zakonu/ |title=Kasata Zakonu |trans-title=Abolishment Order |work=Society of Jesus in Poland |year=2014 |accessdate=20 February 2014|language=pl}}</ref> In the Commonwealth, many of the Jesuit order possessions were taken over by the [[Commission of National Education]], the world's first Ministry of Education. Lithuania complied with the suppression.<ref name=pl2>{{cite web |url= http://mateusz.pl/wam/zd/77-02-Ludwik-Grzebien-SJ-Wskrzeszenie-zakonu-jezuitow.htm |title=Wskrzeszenie zakonu jezuitów |trans-title=The Resurrection of the Jesuits |first=Ludwik |last=Grzebień |work=mateusz.pl |year=2014 |accessdate=20 February 2014|language=pl}}</ref>
===Russia===
Jesuits were supported by Empress [[Catherine the Great]], a patron of learning, who welcomed exiled Jesuits to Russia in 1773 after their expulsion from other parts of Europe. The order of dissolution was delayed in the [[Russian Empire]] until long after her death, when the Society had been reinstated in other places. Under pressure from the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]] exiled the Jesuits in 1820.<ref name=pl/><ref name=pl2/>
===Papal Suppression of the Jesuits 1773===
After the suppression of the Jesuits in many European countries and their overseas empires, Pope [[Clement XIV]] issued a papal brief on 21 July 1773, in Rome titled: “Dominus ac Redemptor Noster.” That decree included the following statement.
{{quotation|Having further considered that the said Company of Jesus can no longer produce those abundant fruits...in the present case, we are determining upon the fate of a society classed among the mendicant orders, both by its institute and by its privileges; after a mature deliberation, we do, out of our certain knowledge, and the fullness of our apostolical power, suppress and abolish the said company: we deprive it of all activity whatever... And to this end a member of the regular clergy, recommendable for his prudence and sound morals, shall be chosen to preside over and govern the said houses; so that the name of the Company shall be, and is, for ever extinguished and suppressed.||Pope Clement XIV|Dominus ac Redemptor Noster<ref>Pope Clement XIV, ''Dominus ac Redemptor Noster'' July 21, 1773 http://www.reformation.org/jesuit-suppression-bull.html</ref>}}
After papal suppression in 1773, the scholarly Jesuit [[Bollandist|Society of Bollandists]] moved from [[Antwerp]] to [[Brussels]], where they continued their work in the monastery of the [[Coudenberg]]; in 1788, the Bollandist Society was suppressed by the [[Austria]]n government of the [[Low Countries]].{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}
===Austria and Hungary===
The Secularization Decree of [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] (Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790 and ruler of the Habsburg lands from 1780 to 1790) issued on 12 January 1782 for Austria and Hungary banned several monastic orders not involved in teaching or healing and liquidated 140 monasteries (home to 1484 monks and 190 nuns). The banned monastic orders: Jesuits, [[Camaldolese]], [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin]], [[Carmelites]], [[Carthusians]], [[Poor Clares]], [[Order of Saint Benedict]], [[Cistercians]], [[Dominican Order]] (Order of Preachers), [[Franciscans]], [[Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit|Pauline Fathers]] and [[Premonstratensians]], and their wealth was taken over by the Religious Fund.
His [[anticlerical]] and liberal innovations induced [[Pope Pius VI]] to pay him a visit in March 1782. Joseph received the Pope politely and presented himself as a good [[Catholic]], but refused to be influenced. On the other hand, Joseph was very friendly to [[Freemasonry]], as he found it highly compatible with his own Enlightenment philosophy, although he apparently never joined the Lodge himself. Freemasonry attracted many anticlericals and was condemned by the Church.
===Switzerland===
After the [[Sonderbund War]] of 1847 the Jesuits were banished from Switzerland. The ban was lifted on 20 May 1973 via referendum.<ref>[https://www.admin.ch/ch/d//pore/va/19730520/can236.html Volksabstimmung vom 20.05.1973] {{de icon}} </ref>
===Restoration of the Jesuits===
As the [[Napoleonic Wars]] were approaching their end in 1814, the old political order of Europe was to a considerable extent restored at the [[Congress of Vienna]] after years of fighting and revolution, during which the Church had been persecuted as an agent of the old order and abused under the rule of [[Napoleon]]. With the political climate of Europe changed, and with the powerful monarchs who had called for the suppression of the Society no longer in power, [[Pope Pius VII]] issued an order restoring the Society of Jesus in the Catholic countries of Europe. For its part, the Society of Jesus made the decision at the first General Congregation held after the restoration to keep the organization of the Society the way that it had been before the suppression was ordered in 1773.
After 1815, with the [[European Restoration|Restoration]], the Catholic Church began to play a more welcome role in European political life once again. Nation by nation the Jesuits became re-established.
-->
Pandangan modern melihat penindasan ini sebagai hasil serangkaian konflik politik ekonomi bukannya kontroversi teologis, dan sebagai pernyataan kemerdekaan negara-negara melawan Gereja Katolik. Pengusiran [[Yesuit|Serikat Yesus]] dari negara-negara [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Katolik Roma]] di Eropa dan kerajaan kolonial mereka juga dipandang sebagai salah satu manifestasi awal dari ''[[zeitgeist]]'' sekuler baru dari [[Abad Pencerahan|Pencerahan]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.americamagazine.org/issue/order-restored|title=Order Restored: Remembering turbulent times for the Jesuits|date=2014-07-22|work=America Magazine|language=en|access-date=2017-03-21}}</ref> Hal ini memuncak dengan anti-clericalism pada [[Revolusi Perancis]]. Penindasan itu juga dilihat sebagai upaya oleh para raja untuk mendapatkan kendali pendapatan dan perdagangan yang sebelumnya didominasi oleh Serikat Yesus. Para sejarawan Katolik sering menunjuk kepada konflik pribadi antara [[Paus Klemens XIII|Paus Clement XIII]] (1758-1769) dan para pendukungnya di dalam gereja dengan para [[kardinal mahkota]] yang didukung oleh Prancis.
== Referensi ==
| |||