Revolusi Prancis: Perbedaan antara revisi
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'''Revolusi Perancis''' adalah masa dalam [[sejarah Perancis]] antara tahun [[1789]] dan [[1799]] di mana para [[demokrasi|demokrat]] dan pendukung [[republikanisme]] menjatuhkan [[monarki absolut]] di [[Perancis]] dan [[Gereja Katolik Roma]] dipaksa menjalani restrukturisasi yang radikal.
Meski Perancis kemudian akan berganti sistem antara [[republik]], [[kekaisaran]], dan [[monarki]] selama 75 tahun setelah [[Republik Pertama Perancis]] jatuh dalam [[kudeta]] yang dilakukan oleh [[Napoleon Bonaparte]], revolusi ini dengan jelas mengakhiri ''ancien régime'' ([[bahasa Indonesia]]: Rezim Lama; merujuk kepada kekuasaan dinasti seperti [[Valois]] dan [[Bourbon]]), dan menjadi lebih penting daripada revolusi-revolusi berikutnya yang terjadi di Perancis.
== Penyebab ==
Banyak faktor yang menyebabkan revolusi ini. Sampai tingkat tertentu, orde yang lama terlalu kaku dalam menghadapi dunia yang berubah; penyebab lainnya ialah, orde ini jatuh karena ambisi dari kaum [[borjuis]] yang berkembang, ditambah dengan kaum petani, para buruh, dan individu dari semua kelas yang merasa disakiti, yang dipengaruhi oleh ide [[Pencerahan]]. Sementara revolusi berlangsung dan sementara kekuasaan beralih dari monarki ke badan [[legislatif]], kepentingan-kepentingan yang berbenturan dari kelompok-kelompok yang semula bersekutu ini kemudian menjadi sumber konflik dan pertumpahan darah.
Sebab-sebab Revolusi Perancis mencakup hal-hal di bawah ini:
* Kemarahan terhadap [[absolutisme politik|absolutisme]] kerajaan.
* Kemarahan terhadap [[sistem seigneurialisme]] di kalangan kaum petani, para buruh, dan sampai batas tertentu, kaum borjuis.
* Bangkitnya gagasan-gagasan [[Pencerahan]]
* [[Utang]] nasional yang tidak terkendali, yang disebabkan dan diperparah oleh sistem [[pajak]] yang tak seimbang.
* Situasi ekonomi yang buruk, sebagian disebabkan oleh keterlibatan Perancis dan bantuan terhadap [[Revolusi Amerika]].
* Kelangkaan [[makanan]] di bulan-bulan menjelang revolusi.
* Kemarahan terhadap hak-hak istimewa kaum bangsawan dan dominasi dalam kehidupan publik oleh kelas profesional yang ambisius.
* Kebencian terhadap intoleransi agama.
* Kegagalan Louis XVI untuk menangani gejala-gejala ini secara efektif.
[[Gambar:Taking of the Bastille.jpg|right|350px|thumb|Penyerbuan penjara Bastille, 14 Juli 1789]]
Aktivitas proto-revolusioner bermula ketika raja Perancis [[Louis XVI dari Perancis|Louis XVI]] (memerintah [[1774]]-[[1792]]) menghadapi krisis dana kerajaan. Keluarga raja Perancis, yang secara keuangan sama dengan negara Perancis, memiliki utang yang besar. Selama pemerintahan [[Louis XV dari Perancis|Louis XV]] ([[1715]]-[[1774]]) dan Louis XVI sejumlah menteri, termasuk [[Anner Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune|Turgot]] (Pengawas Keuangan Umum [[1774]]-[[1776]]) dan [[Jacques Necker]] (Direktur-Jenderal Keuangan [[1777]]-[[1781]]), mengusulkan sistem perpajakan Perancis yang lebih seragam, namun gagal. Langkah-langkah itu mendapatkan tantangan terus-menerus dari ''[[parlement]]'' (pengadilan hukum), yang didominasi oleh "Para Bangsawan", yang menganggap diri mereka sebagai pengawal nasional melawan pemerintahan yang sewenang-wenang, dan juga dari fraksi-fraksi pengadilan. Akibatnya, kedua menteri itu akhirnya diberhentikan. [[Charles Alexandre de Calonne]], yang menjadi Pengawas Umum Keuangan pada [[1783]], mengembangkan strategi pengeluaran yang terbuka sebagai cara untuk meyakinkan calon kreditur tentang kepercayaan dan stabilitas keuangan Perancis.
Namun, setelah Callone melakukan peninjauan yang mendalam terhadap situasi keuangan Perancis, menetapkan bahwa hal itu tidak mungkin dilakukan, dan karenanya ia mengusulkan [[pajak tanah]] yang seragam sebagai cara untuk memperbaiki keuangan Perancis dalam jangka panjang. Dalam jangka pendek, dia berharap bahwa dukungan dari Dewan Kaum Terkemuka yang dipilih raja akan mengemalikan kepercayaan akan keuangan Perancis, dan dapat memberikan pinjaman hingga pajak tanah mulai memberikan hasilnya dan memungkinkan pembayaran kembali dari utang tersebut.
Meskipun Callone meyakinkan raja akan pentingnya pembaharuannya, Dewan Kaum Terkemuka menolak untuk mendukung kebijakannya, dan berkeras bahwa hanya lembaga yang betul-betul representatif, seyogyanya ''[[Estates-General]]'' (wakil-wakil berbagai golongan) Kerajaan, dapat menyetujui pajak baru. Raja, yang melihat bahwa Callone akan menjadi masalah baginya, memecatnya dan menggantikannya dengan [[Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne]], Uskup Agung Toulouse, yang merupakan pemimpin oposisi di Dewan. Brienne sekarang mengadopsi pembaruan menyeluruh, memberikan berbagai hak sipil (termasuk kebebasan beribadah kepada kaum Protestan), dan menjanjikan pembentukan ''Etats-Généraux'' dalam lima tahun, tetapi ssementara itu juga mencoba melanjutkan rencana Calonne. Ketika langkah-langkah ini ditentang di ''Parlement'' Paris (sebagian karena Raja tidak bijaksana), Brienne mulai menyerang, mencoba membubarkan seluruh "parlement" dan mengumpulkan pajak baru tanpa peduli terhadap mereka. Ini menyebabkan bangkitnya perlawanan massal di banyak bagian di Perancis, termasuk "Day of the Tiles" yang terkenal di [[Grenoble]]. Yang lebih penting lagi, kekacauan di seluruh Perancis meyakinkan para kreditor jangka-pendek. Keuangan Prancis sangat tergantung pada mereka untuk mempertahankan kegiatannya sehari-hari untuk menarik pinjaman mereka, menyebabkan negara hampir bangkrut, dan memaksa Louis dan Brienne untuk menyerah.
Raja setuju pada [[8 Agustus]] [[1788]] untuk mengumpulkan ''Estates-General'' pada Mei [[1789]] untuk pertama kalinya sejak [[1614]]. Brienne mengundurkan diri pada [[25 Agustus]] [[1788]], dan Necker kembali bertanggung jawab atas keuangan nasional. Dia menggunakan posisinya bukan untuk mengusulkan langkah-langkah pembaruan yang baru, melainkan untuk menyiapkan pertemuan wakil-wakil nasional.
== Sejarah ==
=== Etats-Généraux 1789 ===
''Untuk penjelasan lebih terinci mengenai peristiwa-peristiwa pada [[8 Agustus]] [[1788]]- [[17 Juni]] [[1789]], lihat [[Etats-Généraux 1789]]''
Pembentukan ''Etats-Généraux'' menyebabkan berkembangnya keprihatinan pada pihak oposisi bahwa pemerintah akan berusaha seenaknya membentuk sebuah Dewan sesuai keinginannya. Untuk menghindarinya, ''Parlement'' Paris, setelah kembali ke kota dengan kemenangan, mengumumkan bahwa ''Etats-Généraux'' harus dibentuk sesuai dengan ketentuan-ketentuan yang telah ditetapkan dalam pertemuan sebelumnya. Meskipun kelihatannya para politikus tidak memahami "ketentuan-ketentuan 1614" ketika mereka membuat keputusan ini, hal ini membangkitkan kehebohan. Estates [[1614]] terdiri dari jumlah wakil yang sama dari setiap kelompok dan pemberian suara dilakukan menurut urutan, yaitu [[Kelompok Pertama]] (para rohaniwan), [[Kelompok Kedua]] (para bangsawan), dan [[Kelompok Ketiga]] (lain-lain), masing-masing mendapatkan satu suara.
Segera setelah itu, "Komite Tiga Puluh", sebuah badan yang terdiri atas
penduduk Paris yang liberal, mulai melakukan agitasi melawannya, menuntut agar Kelompok Ketiga digandakan dan pemungutan suara dilakukan per kepala (seperti yang telah dilakukan dalam berbagai dewan perwakilan daerah). Necker, yang berbicara untuk pemerintah, mengakui lebih jauh bahwa Kelompok Ketiga harus digandakan, tetapi masalah pemungutan suara per kepala harus diserahkan kepada pertemuan Etats sendiri. Namun kemarahan yang dihasilkan oleh pertikaian itu tetap mendalam, dan pamflet-pamflet, seperti tulisan [[Abbé Sieyès]] ''Apakah Kelompok Ketiga itu?'' yang berpendapat bahwa ordo-ordo yang memiliki hak-hak istimewa adalah parasit, dan Kelompok Ketiga adalah bangsa itu sendiri, membuat kemarahan itu tetap bertahan.
Ketika Etats-Généraux bertemu di [[Versailles]] pada [[5 Mei]] [[1789]], pidato-pidato panjang oleh Necker dan Lamoignon, yang bertugas menyimpan meterai, tidak banyak membantu untuk memberikan bimbingan kepada para wakil, yang dikembalikan ke tempat-tempat pertemuan terpisah untuk membuktikan kredensi para panggotanya. Pertanyaan tentang apakah pemilihan suara akhirnya akan dilakukan per kepala atau diambil dari setiap orde sekali lagi disingkirkan untuk sementara waktu, namun Kelompok Ketiga kini menuntut agar pembuktian kredensi itu sendiri harus dilakukan sebagai kelompok. Namun, perundingan-perundingan dengan kelompok-kelompok lain untuk mencapai hal ini tidak berhasil, karena kebanyakan rohaniwan dan kaum bangsawan tetap mendukung pemungutan suara yang diwakili oleh setiap orde.
<!--=== Dewan Nasional ===
[[Image:TennisCourtOath.jpg|thumb|right|Sketsa oleh [[Jacques-Louis David]] tentang Dewan Nasional yang mengambil Sumpah]]
''For a more detailed description of the events of [[June 17]] [[1789]] - [[July 9]] [[1789]], see [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]]''
On [[May 28]] 1789, the Abbé [[Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès|Sieyès]] moved that the Third Estate, now meeting as the ''Communes'' (English: "Commons"), proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so, completing the process on [[June 17]]. Then they voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]], an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People". They invited the other orders to join them, but made it clear that they intended to conduct the nation's affairs with or without them.
Louis XVI shut the Salle des États where the Assembly met. The Assembly moved their deliberations to the king's tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the [[Tennis Court Oath]] ([[June 20]], 1789), under which they agreed not to separate until they had given France a [[constitution]].A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did forty-seven members of the nobility. By [[June 27]] the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around [[Paris]] and Versailles. Messages of support for the Assembly poured in from Paris and other French cities. On [[July 9]], the Assembly reconstituted itself as the [[National Constituent Assembly]].
===The National Constituent Assembly===
[[Image:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'']]
====The storming of the Bastille====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[Storming of the Bastille]]''
On [[July 11]] 1789, King Louis, acting under the influence of the conservative nobles of his [[privy council]], as well as his wife, [[Marie Antoinette]], and brother, the [[Charles X of France|Comte d'Artois]], banished the reformist minister Necker and completely reconstructed the ministry. Much of Paris, presuming this to be the start of a royal coup, moved into open rebellion. Some of the military joined the mob; others remained neutral.
On [[July 14]] 1789, after four hours of combat, the insurgents seized the [[Bastille]] [[prison]], killing the governor, Marquis [[Bernard de Launay]], and several of his guards. Although the Parisians released only seven prisoners; four forgers, two lunatics, and a dangerous sexual offender, the Bastille served as a potent symbol of everything hated under the ''[[ancien régime]]''. Returning to the [[Hôtel de Ville, Paris|Hôtel de Ville]] (city hall), the mob accused the ''[[Provost (civil)|prévôt]] des marchands'' (roughly, mayor) [[Jacques de Flesselles]] of treachery; his assassination took place ''en route'' to an ostensible trial at the [[Palais Royal]].
The king and his military supporters backed down, at least for the time being. [[Marquis de la Fayette|Lafayette]] took up command of the National Guard at Paris; [[Jean-Sylvain Bailly]], president of the National Assembly at the time of the [[Tennis Court Oath]], became the city's mayor under a new governmental structure known as the ''commune''. The king visited Paris, where, on [[July 27]], he accepted a [[tricolore]] [[cockade]], as cries of ''vive la Nation'' "Long live the Nation" changed to ''vive le Roi'' "Long live the King".
Nonetheless, after this violence, nobles, little assured by the apparent and, as it proved, temporary reconciliation of king and people, started to flee the country as ''[[émigré]]s'', some of whom began plotting civil war within the kingdom and agitating for a European coalition against France.
Necker, recalled to power, experienced but a short-lived triumph. An astute financier but a less astute politician, he overplayed his hand by demanding and obtaining a general amnesty, losing much of the people's favour in his moment of apparent triumph.
By late July insurrection and the spirit of [[popular sovereignty]] spread throughout France. In rural areas, many went beyond this: some burned title-deeds and no small number of [[chateau|châteaux]], as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as "la Grande Peur" (the [[Great Fear]]).
====The abolition of feudalism====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy#The abolition of feudalism|The abolition of feudalism]].''
On [[August 4]], 1789, the National Assembly abolished [[feudalism]], sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the [[tithe]]s gathered by the First Estate. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges.
While there would follow retreats, regrets, and much argument over the ''rachat au denier 30'' ("redemption at a thirty-years' purchase") specified in the legislation of [[August 4]], the course now remained set, although the full process would take another four years.
====Dechristianisation====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution]].''
The revolution brought about a massive shifting of powers from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] to the state. Legislation enacted in [[1790]] abolished the Church's authority to levy a [[tax]] on crops known as the ''[[tithe|dîme]]'', cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property; under the ''ancien régime'', the Church had been the largest landowner in the country. [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy|Subsequent legislation]] attempted to subordinate the clergy to the state, making them state employees. The ensuing years saw violent repression of the clergy, including the imprisonment and massacre of [[priest]]s throughout France. The [[Concordat of 1801]] between Napoleon and the Church ended the dechristianisation period and established the rules for a relationship between the Catholic Church and the French State that lasted until it was abrogated by the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] on the [[separation of church and state]] on [[December 11]], [[1905]].
====The appearance of factions====
''For a more detailed discussion, please see [[National Constituent Assembly]].''
Factions within the Assembly began to become clearer. The [[aristocracy|aristocrat]] [[Jacques Antoine Marie Cazalès]] and the abbé [[Jean-Sifrein Maury]] led what would become known as the [[right-wing politics|right wing]], the opposition to revolution. The "Royalist democrats" or ''monarchiens'', allied with Necker, inclined toward organising France along lines similar to the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|British constitution]]al model: they included [[Jean Joseph Mounier]], the [[Comte de Lally-Tollendal]], the [[Comte de Clermont-Tonnerre]], and [[Pierre Victor Malouet]], Comte de Virieu.
The "National Party", representing the centre or centre-left of the assembly, included [[Honoré Mirabeau]], Lafayette, and Bailly; while [[Adrien Duport]], [[Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave|Barnave]] and [[Alexander Lameth]] represented somewhat more extreme views. Almost alone in his radicalism on the left was the [[Arras]] lawyer [[Maximilien Robespierre]].
The abbé [[Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès|Sieyès]] led in proposing legislation in this period and successfully forged consensus for some time between the political centre and the [[left-wing politics|left]].
In Paris, various committees, the mayor, the assembly of representatives, and the individual districts each claimed authority independent of the others. The increasingly middle-class [[National Guard (France)|National Guard]] under Lafayette also slowly emerged as a power in its own right, as did other self-generated assemblies.
Looking to the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] for a model, on [[August 26]], 1789, the Assembly published the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]. Like the U.S. Declaration, it comprised a statement of principles rather than a [[constitution]] with legal effect.
====Towards a constitution====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy#Towards a constitution|Towards a constitution]].''
The National Constituent Assembly functioned not only as a [[legislature]], but also as a body to draft a new constitution.
Necker, Mounier, Lally-Tollendal and others argued unsuccessfully for a [[senate]], with members appointed by the crown on the nomination of the people. The bulk of the nobles argued for an aristocratic [[upper house]] elected by the nobles. The popular party carried the day: France would have a single, unicameral assembly. The king retained only a "suspensive veto": he could delay the implementation of a law, but not block it absolutely.
The people of Paris thwarted Royalist efforts to block this new order: they marched on Versailles on [[October 5]] 1789. After various scuffles and incidents, the king and the royal family allowed themselves to be brought back from Versailles to Paris.
The Assembly replaced the historic [[Provinces of France|provinces]] with eighty-three ''[[département in France|département]]s'', uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in extent and population.
Originally summoned to deal with a financial crisis, to date the Assembly had focused on other matters and only worsened the deficit. Mirabeau now led the move to address this matter, with the Assembly giving Necker complete financial dictatorship.
====Toward the Civil Constitution of the Clergy====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]].''
To no small extent, the Assembly addressed the financial crisis by having the nation take over the property of the Church (while taking on the Church's expenses), through the law of [[December 2]], 1789. In order to rapidly monetise such an enormous amount of property, the government introduced a new paper currency, ''[[assignat]]s'', backed by the confiscated church lands.
Further legislation on [[February 13]], 1790, abolished [[monastic vows]]. The [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]], passed on [[July 12]], 1790 (although not signed by the king until [[December 26]], [[1790]]), turned the remaining clergy into employees of the State and required that they take an oath of loyalty to the constitution. The [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]] also made the Catholic church an arm of the secular state.
In response to this legislation, the archbishop of Aix and the bishop of Clermont led a walkout of clergy from the National Constituent Assembly. The [[pope]] never accepted the new arrangement, and it led to a schism between those clergy who swore the required oath and accepted the new arrangement ("jurors" or "constitutional clergy") and the "non-jurors" or "refractory priests" who refused to do so.
====From the anniversary of the Bastille to the death of Mirabeau====
''For a more detailed discussion of the events of [[July 14]], [[1790]] - [[September 30]], [[1791]], see [[French Revolution from the summer of 1790 to the establishment of the Legislative Assembly#From the anniversary of the Bastille to the death of Mirabeau|From the anniversary of the Bastille to the death of Mirabeau]].''
The Assembly abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the ''ancien régime'', armorial bearings, liveries, etc., which further alienated the more conservative nobles, and added to the ranks of the ''[[émigré]]s''.
On [[July 14]], [[1790]], and for several days following, crowds in the [[Champ-de-Mars]] celebrated the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille; Talleyrand performed a mass; participants swore an oath of "fidelity to the nation, the law, and the king"; the king and the royal family actively participated.
The electors had originally chosen the members of the [[French Estates-General|Estates-General]] to serve for a single year, but by the [[Tennis Court Oath]], the ''communes'' had bound themselves to meet continuously until France had a constitution. Right-wing elements now argued for a new election, but Mirabeau carried the day, asserting that the status of the assembly had fundamentally changed, and that no new election should take place before completing the constitution.
In late 1790, several small counter-revolutionary uprisings broke out and efforts took place to turn all or part of the army against the revolution. These uniformly failed. The royal court, in [[François Mignet]]'s words, "encouraged every anti-revolutionary enterprise and avowed none." [http://www.outfo.org/literature/pg/etext06/8hfrr10.txt]
The army faced considerable internal turmoil: General [[François Claude Amour, marquis de Bouillé|Bouillé]] successfully put down a small rebellion, which added to his (accurate) reputation for counter-revolutionary sympathies.
The new military code, under which promotion depended on seniority and proven competence (rather than on nobility) alienated some of the existing officer corps, who joined the ranks of the émigrés or became counter-revolutionaries from within.
This period saw the rise of the political "clubs" in French politics, foremost among these the [[Jacobin Club]]: according to the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]], one hundred and fifty-two clubs had affiliated with the Jacobins by [[August 10]], 1790. As the Jacobins became more of a broad popular organisation, some of its founders abandoned it to form the [[Club of '89]]. Royalists established first the short-lived ''[[Club des Impartiaux]]'' and later the ''[[Club Monarchique]]''. They attempted unsuccessfully to curry public favour by distributing bread; nonetheless, they became the frequent target of protests and even riots, and the Paris municipal authorities finally closed down the Club Monarchique in January [[1791]].
Amidst these intrigues, the Assembly continued to work on developing a constitution. A new judicial organisation made all magistracies temporary and independent of the throne. The legislators abolished hereditary offices, except for the monarchy itself. Jury trials started for criminal cases. The king would have the unique power to propose war, with the legislature then deciding whether to declare war. The Assembly abolished all internal trade barriers and suppressed guilds, masterships, and workers' organisations: any individual gained the right to practice a trade through the purchase of a license; strikes became illegal.
In the winter of 1791, the Assembly considered, for the first time, legislation against the ''émigrés''. The debate pitted the safety of the State against the liberty of individuals to leave. Mirabeau carried the day against the measure, which he referred to as "worthy of being placed in the code of [[Draco]]." [http://www.outfo.org/literature/pg/etext06/8hfrr10.txt]
However, Mirabeau died on [[March 2]] [[1791]]. In Mignet's words, "No one succeeded him in power and popularity," and before the end of the year, the new Legislative Assembly would adopt this "draconian" measure.
====The Flight to Varennes====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[Flight to Varennes]].''
Louis XVI, opposed to the course of the revolution, but rejecting the potentially treacherous aid of the other monarchs of Europe, cast his lot with General Bouillé, who condemned both the emigration and the assembly, and promised him refuge and support in his camp at [[Montmedy]].
On the night of [[June 20]], 1791, the royal family fled the Tuileries. However, the next day the overconfident king had the imprudence to show himself. Recognised and arrested at [[Varennes]] (in the [[Meuse]] ''[[département in France|département]]'') late on [[21 June]], he returned to Paris under guard.
[[Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve|Pétion]], [[Marie Victor de Fay, Marquis de Latour-Maubourg|Latour-Maubourg]], and [[Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave]], representing the Assembly, met the royal family at [[Épernay]] and returned with them. From this time, Barnave became a counselor and supporter of the royal family.
When they reached Paris, the crowd remained silent. The Assembly provisionally suspended the king. He and Queen [[Marie Antoinette]] remained held under guard.
====The last days of the National Constituent Assembly====
''For a more detailed discussion, please see [[French Revolution from the summer of 1790 to the establishment of the Legislative Assembly#The last days of the National Constituent Assembly|The last days of the National Constituent Assembly]].''
With most of the Assembly still favouring a [[constitutional monarchy]] rather than a [[republic]], the various groupings reached a compromise which left Louis XVI little more than a figurehead: he had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to ''de facto'' abdication.
[[Jacques Pierre Brissot]] drafted a petition, insisting that in the eyes of the nation Louis XVI was deposed since his flight. An immense crowd gathered in the [[Champ-de-Mars]] to sign the petition. [[Georges Danton]] and [[Camille Desmoulins]] gave fiery speeches. The Assembly called for the municipal authorities to "preserve public order". The National Guard under Lafayette's command confronted the crowd. The soldiers first responded to a barrage of stones by firing in the air; the crowd did not back down, and Lafayette ordered his men to fire into the crowd, resulting in the killing of as many as fifty people.
In the wake of this massacre the authorities closed many of the patriotic clubs, as well as radical newspapers such as [[Jean-Paul Marat]]'s ''[[L'Ami du Peuple]]''. Danton fled to England; Desmoulins and Marat went into hiding.
Meanwhile, a renewed threat from abroad arose: [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Frederick William II of Prussia]], and the king's brother [[Charles X of France|Charles-Phillipe, comte d'Artois]] issued the [[Declaration of Pilnitz]] which considered the cause of Louis XVI as their own, demanded his total liberty and the dissolution of the Assembly, and promised an invasion of France on his behalf if the revolutionary authorities refused its conditions.
If anything, the declaration further imperiled Louis. The French people expressed no respect for the dictates of foreign monarchs, and the threat of force merely resulted in the militarisation of the frontiers.
Even before the "Flight to Varennes" the Assembly members had determined to debar themselves from the legislature that would succeed them, the [[French Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]]. They now gathered the various constitutional laws they had passed into a single constitution, showed remarkable fortitude in choosing not to use this as an occasion for major revisions, and submitted it to the recently restored Louis XVI, who accepted it, writing "I engage to maintain it at home, to defend it from all attacks from abroad; and to cause its execution by all the means it places at my disposal". The king addressed the Assembly and received enthusiastic applause from members and spectators. The Assembly set the end of its term for [[September 29]] [[1791]].
Mignet has written, "The constitution of 1791... was the work of the middle class, then the strongest; for, as is well known, the predominant force ever takes possession of institutions... In this constitution the people was the source of all powers, but it exercised none." [http://www.outfo.org/literature/pg/etext06/8hfrr10.txt]
===The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the Monarchy===
''For a more detailed description of the events of [[October 1]] [[1791]] - [[September 19]] [[1792]], see main article [[The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the French monarchy]].''
====The Legislative Assembly====
Under the Constitution of 1791, France would function as a constitutional monarchy. The king had to share power with the elected [[Legislative Assembly (France)|Legislative Assembly]], but he still retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers.
The Legislative Assembly first met on [[October 1]], 1791, and degenerated into chaos less than a year later. In the words of the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]: "In the attempt to govern, the Assembly failed altogether. It left behind an empty treasury, an undisciplined army and navy, and a people debauched by safe and successful riot."
The Legislative Assembly consisted of about 165 [[Feuillant]]s (constitutional monarchists) on the [[Right-wing politics|right]], about 330 [[Girondist]]s (liberal republicans) and [[Jacobin]]s (radical revolutionaries) on the [[Left-wing politics|left]], and about 250 deputies unaffiliated with either faction.
Early on, the king vetoed legislation that threatened the ''émigrés'' with death and that decreed that every [[non-juror|non-juring clergyman]] must take within eight days the civic oath mandated by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Over the course of a year, disagreements like this would lead to a [[constitutional crisis]].
====War====
The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with [[Austria]] and its allies. The King, the Feuillants and the Girondins specifically wanted to wage war. The King (and many Feuillants with him) expected war would increase his personal popularity; he also foresaw an opportunity to exploit any defeat: either result would make him stronger. The Girondins wanted to export the Revolution throughout Europe. Only some of the radical Jacobins opposed war, preferring to consolidate and expand the revolution at home. The Austrian emperor [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]], brother of [[Marie Antoinette]], may have wished to avoid war, but he died on [[March 1]], [[1792]].
France declared war on [[Austria]] ([[April 20]] [[1792]]) and [[Prussia]] joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. The [[French Revolutionary Wars]] had begun.
After early skirmishes went badly for France, the first significant military engagement of the war occurred with the Franco-Prussian [[Battle of Valmy]] ([[September 20]] 1792). Although heavy rain prevented a conclusive resolution, the French artillery proved its superiority. However, by this time, France stood in turmoil and the monarchy had effectively become a thing of the past.
====Constitutional Crisis====
[[image:French_Revolution-1792-8-10.jpg|thumb|August 10, 1792, Paris Commune]]
:''Main articles: [[10th of August (French Revolution)]], [[September Massacres]]''
On the night of [[August 10]] 1792, insurgents, supported by a new revolutionary [[Paris Commune (French Revolution)|Paris Commune]], assailed the Tuileries. The king and queen ended up prisoners and a rump session of the Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy: little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins.
What remained of a national government depended on the support of the insurrectionary Commune. When the Commune sent gangs of assassins into the prisons to butcher 1400 victims, and addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France inviting them to follow this example, the Assembly could offer only feeble resistance. This situation persisted until the [[French National Convention|Convention]], charged with writing a new constitution, met on [[September 20]], 1792 and became the new ''de facto'' government of France. The next day it abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. This date was later retroactively adopted as the beginning of [[Year One]] of the [[French Revolutionary Calendar]].
===The Convention===
[[Image:LouisXVIExecutionBig.jpg|thumb|Execution of Louis XVI]]
''For a more detailed description of the events of [[September 20]] [[1792]]- [[September 26]] [[1795]], see [[National Convention]].''
The legislative power in the new republic fell to a National Convention, while the executive power came to rest in the [[Committee of Public Safety]]. The Girondins became the most influential party in the Convention and on the Committee.
In the [[Brunswick Manifesto]], the Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population should it resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. As a consequence, King Louis was seen as conspiring with the enemies of France. [[January 17]] [[1793]] saw King Louis condemned to death for "conspiracy against the public liberty and the general safety" by a weak majority in Convention. The [[January 21]] execution led to more wars with other European countries. Louis' Austrian-born queen, Marie Antoinette, would follow him to the guillotine on [[October 16]].
When war went badly, prices rose and the [[sans-culottes]] (poor labourers and radical Jacobins) rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary ''[[coup d'état | coup]]'', backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian ''sans-culottes''. An alliance of Jacobin and ''sans-culottes'' elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. Policy became considerably more radical.
[[Image:Badische Guillotine.JPG|thumb|left|[[Guillotine]]: between 18,000 to 40,000 people were executed during the [[Reign of Terror]]]]
The [[Committee of Public Safety]] came under the control of [[Maximilien Robespierre]], and the Jacobins unleashed the [[Reign of Terror]] ([[1793]]-[[1794]]). At least 1200 people met their deaths under the [[guillotine]] or otherwise; after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities. The slightest hint of counter-revolutionary thoughts or activities (or, as in the case of [[Jacques Hébert]], revolutionary zeal exceeding that of those in power) could place one under suspicion, and the trials did not proceed scrupulously.
In 1794 [[Robespierre]] had ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins executed; in consequence, however, his own popular support eroded markedly. On [[July 27]], [[1794]], the French people revolted against the excesses of the Reign of Terror in what became known as the [[Thermidorian Reaction]]. It resulted in moderate Convention members deposing and executing Robespierre and several other leading members of the Committee of Public Safety. The new government was predominantly made up of Girondists who had survived the Terror, and after taking power, they took revenge as well by persecuting even those Jacobins who had helped to overthrow Robespierre, banning the Jacobin Club, and executing many of its former members in what was known as the [[White Terror]].
The Convention approved the new "Constitution of the Year III" on [[August 17]] [[1795]]; a [[plebiscite]] ratified it in September; and it took effect on [[September 26]], [[1795]].
===The Directory===
''For more information on the events of [[September 26]] [[1795]] - [[November 9]] [[1799]], see [[French Directory]].''
The new constitution installed the [[French Directory |''Directoire'']] ([[English language|English]]: ''Directory'') and created the first [[bicameral legislature]] in French history. The parliament consisted of 500 representatives (the ''Conseil des Cinq-Cents'' (Council of the Five Hundred)) and 250 senators (the ''Conseil des Anciens'' (Council of Seniors)). Executive power went to five "directors," named annually by the ''Conseil des Anciens'' from a list submitted by the ''Conseil des Cinq-Cents''.
The new [[regime|régime]] met with opposition from remaining Jacobins and the royalists. The army suppressed riots and counter-revolutionary activities. In this way the army and its successful general, [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] gained much power.
On [[November 9]] [[1799]] ([[18 Brumaire]] of the Year VIII) [[Napoleon]] staged the ''[[coup]]'' which installed the [[French Consulate|Consulate]]; this effectively led to his dictatorship and eventually (in 1804) to his proclamation as emperor, which brought to a close the specifically [[republic]]an phase of the French Revolution.
==See also==
*[[French Revolutionary Calendar]]
*[[French Revolutionary Wars]]
*[[Glossary of the French Revolution]]
*[[History of democracy]]
*[[List of people associated with the French Revolution]]
*[[List of people granted honorary French citizenship during the French Revolution]]
*[[Reactionary]]
*[[Timeline of the French Revolution]]
===Other revolutions in French history===
*[[July Revolution]]
*[[The Revolutions of 1848 in France]]
*[[Paris Commune]] of 1871
*[[May 1968]], a noteworthy rebellion, though not quite a revolution -->
==Tokoh-tokoh==
Beberapa tokoh dalam Revolusi Perancis:
*[[Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte|Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte]], jendral, kelak menjadi [[Raja Swedia]]
*[[Jean-Paul Marat]]
*[[Louis XVI dari Perancis]]
*[[Louis XVII dari Perancis]]
*[[Marie Antoinette]]
*[[Napoleon Bonaparte]]
*[[Voltaire]]
==Lihat pula==
*[[Kalender Revolusi Perancis]]
{{stub}}
[[kategori:Sejarah Perancis]]
[[af:Franse Rewolusie]]
[[ar:الثورة الفرنسية]]
[[ast:Revolución Francesa]]
[[bn:ফরাসী বিপ্লব]]
[[bs:Francuska revolucija]]
[[ca:Revolució Francesa]]
[[cs:Velká francouzská revoluce]]
[[cy:Y Chwyldro Ffrengig]]
[[da:Den franske revolution]]
[[de:Französische Revolution]]
[[el:Γαλλική Επανάσταση]]
[[en:French Revolution]]
[[eo:Francaj revolucioj]]
[[es:Revolución Francesa]]
[[et:Suur Prantsuse revolutsioon]]
[[eu:Frantziako Iraultza]]
[[fi:Ranskan suuri vallankumous]]
[[fr:Révolution française]]
[[he:המהפכה הצרפתית]]
[[hr:Francuska revolucija]]
[[it:Rivoluzione francese]]
[[ja:フランス革命]]
[[ko:프랑스 혁명]]
[[kw:Domhwelans Frynkek]]
[[lt:Didžioji Prancūzų revoliucija]]
[[lv:Franču revolūcija]]
[[nds:Franzöösche Revolutschoon]]
[[nl:Franse Revolutie]]
[[nn:Den franske revolusjonen]]
[[no:Den franske revolusjon]]
[[pl:Wielka Rewolucja Francuska]]
[[pt:Revolução Francesa]]
[[ro:Revoluţia franceză]]
[[ru:Великая французская революция]]
[[scn:Rivuluzzioni francisi]]
[[sk:Francúzska revolúcia]]
[[sl:Francoska revolucija]]
[[sv:Franska revolutionen]]
[[th:การปฏิวัติฝรั่งเศส]]
[[vi:Cách mạng Pháp]]
[[zh:法国大革命]]
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