Pengguna:Swarabakti/Kerajaan Wajo: Perbedaan antara revisi

 

The '''Polynesian languages''' form a [[language family]] spoken in geographical [[Polynesia]] and on a patchwork of [[Polynesian outlier|outliers]] from south central [[Micronesia]] to small islands off the northeast of the larger islands of the southeast [[Solomon Islands]] and sprinkled through [[Vanuatu]]. Linguistic taxonomists classify them as a subgroup of the much larger and more varied [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian family]], belonging to the [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]] branch of that family.<ref>In terms of numbers of languages, the 38 members of the Polynesian branch represent 7 percent of the 522 Oceanic languages, and 3 percent of the Austronesian family (source: ''[[Glottolog]]'').</ref>

 

All Polynesian languages show strong similarity, particularly in vocabulary. The vowels are often stable in the descendant languages, nearly always a, e, i, o and u. Consonant [[sound change|changes]] tend to be quite regular. The legendary homeland of many Polynesian peoples, reconstructed as *sawaiki, appears as Hawaiki among the Māori of [[New Zealand]] with s replaced by h; but 'Avaiki in the [[Cook Islands]] with s replaced by the [[glottal stop]], and w by v; as Hawai'i, the name of the largest island in the [[Hawaiian Islands]], with s replaced by h, and k by the glottal stop; as Savai'i, the largest island in [[Samoa]], with w replaced by v, and k by the glottal stop; and as Havai'i in the [[Society Islands]] with s replaced by h, w replaced by v, and k by the glottal stop.<ref name=buckh>

{{POV section|date=August 2012}}

The contemporary classification of the Polynesian languages began with certain observations by [[Andrew Pawley]] in 1966 based on shared innovations in phonology, vocabulary and grammar showing that the East Polynesian languages were more closely related to Samoan than they were to Tongan, calling Tongan and its nearby relative Niuean "Tongic" and Samoan and all other Polynesian languages of the study "Nuclear Polynesian".<ref name="pawley66">Pawley, Andrew, 1966, Polynesian languages: a subgrouping based upon shared innovations in morphology. ''Journal of the Polynesian Society'' 75(1):39–64. {{JSTOR|20704348}}.</ref>

 

Pawley published another study in 1967.<ref name="pawley67">Pawley, Andrew, 1967, The relationships of Polynesian Outlier languages. ''Journal of the Polynesian Society'' 76(3):259–296. {{JSTOR|20704480}}.</ref> It began the process of extracting relationships from Polynesian languages on small islands in Melanesia, the "[[Polynesian Outliers]]", whose languages Pawley was able to trace to East Futuna in the case of those farther south and perhaps to Samoa itself in the case of those more to the north.

 

Returning to lexicostatistics, it must be emphasised that the method does not make the best possible use of its short word lists of 100 or 200 words. Dyen's<ref>Dyen, Isidore, 1965. A Lexicostatistical classification of the Austronesian languages. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' (Memoir 19).</ref> massive lexicostatistical study of Austronesian, for instance, showed a great deal of (lexicostatistical) diversity in the Austronesian languages of Western Melanesia. This was sometimes on par with the lexicostatistical distance of Taiwan Austronesian languages from other Austronesian including Taiwan Austronesian languages from each other (Taiwan now definitively known to be the homeland of the language family itself). But the low lexicostatistical agreement of many Western Melanesian [[Oceanic languages]] with other Oceanic Austronesian can be easily dismissed as of little subgrouping interest because those languages are nevertheless full of diagnostic innovations of Oceanic Austronesian in their sound systems and vocabulary, including many Oceanic lexical innovations found in the 100 and 200 lexicostatistical word lists (and the deadly conclusive evidence of the shared phonological innovations of those low-scoring groups with all other Oceanic Austronesian). The Western Oceanic Melanesian "diversity" of lexicostatistical studies was never of any interest in terms of attributing any special time depth or subgrouping significance to it. They are just languages with accelerated loss of vocabulary, sometimes, in the Western{{Clarify|date=August 2015}} Oceanic case, because they involve certain more ancient peoples of the region shifting to Oceanic speech after Oceanic-speaking peoples arrived.<ref>Ross, Malcolm, 2008. The integrity of the Austronesian language family: from Taiwan to Oceania, in Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, Roger Blench, Malcolm D. Ross, Ilia Peiros and Marie Lin (ed.), ''Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching archaeology, linguistics and genetics'', Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, Great Britain, pp. 161–181.</ref>

 

==Personal pronouns==

In general, Polynesian languages have three [[Grammatical number|numbers]] for pronouns and possessives: singular, [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]] and plural. For example, in Māori: ''ia'' (he/she), ''rāua'' (they two), ''rātou'' (they 3 or more). The words ''rua'' (2) and ''toru'' (3) are still discernible in endings of the dual and plural pronouns, giving the impression that the plural was originally a [[Grammatical number#Trial|trial]] (threesome) or [[paucal]] (a few), and that an original plural has disappeared.<ref>Indeed [[Fijian language|Fijian]], a language closely related to Polynesian, has singular, dual, paucal, and plural; and even there we may see the paucal replacing the plural in generations to come, as the paucal currently can be used for a group from 3 up to as many as 10, usually with some family, workgroup or other association.</ref>

 

==Numerals in Polynesian languages==

|}

<p><p><p>

 

==See also==