Barack Obama: Perbedaan antara revisi

{{main|Kehidupan awal dan karir Barack Obama}}

 

 

Ia kembali ke Honolulu untuk tinggal bersama [[Madelyn dan Stanley Dunham|kakek dan neneknya]] dan belajar di [[Sekolah Punahou]] sejak [[Pendidikan di Amerika Serikat#Tingkatan sekolah|kelas lima]] tahun 1971 hingga lulus SMA pada 1979.<ref>{{cite news |first=Peter |last=Serafin |title=Punahou Grad Stirs Up Illinois Politics |date=2004-03-21 |url=http://starbulletin.com/2004/03/21/news/story4.html |work=Honolulu Star-Bulletin |accessdate=2008-04-13}} See also: Obama (1995), Chapters 3 and 4.</ref> Ibu Obama kembali ke Hawaii tahun 1972 selama beberapa tahun dan kemudian ke Indonesia untuk menyelesaikan kerja lapangan untuk [[disertasi]] [[Doctor of Philosophy|doktoral]]. Ia meninggal karena [[kanker rahim]] tahun 1995.<ref>{{cite news |first=Amanda |last=Ripley |title=The Story of Barack Obama's Mother |date=2008-04-09 |url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1729524,00.html |work=Time |accessdate=2008-06-24}} See also: {{cite news |first=Julia |last=Suryakusuma |title=Obama for President... of Indonesia |date=2006-11-29 |work=Jakarta Post |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/yesterdaydetail.asp?fileid=20061129.F03 |accessdate=2008-06-24}}</ref>Sebagai seorang dewasa, Obama mengakui bahwa ketika SMA ia menggunakan [[mariyuana]], [[kokain]], dan alkohol, yang ia jelaskan pada [[Forum Sipil Presiden]] 2008 sebagai kesalahan moralnya yang terbesar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/08/16/warren.forum/ |title=Obama, McCain talk issues at pastor's forum - CNN.com |publisher=cnn.com |date=2008-08-17 |accessdate=2008-08-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/10/24/news/dems.php |title=Barack Obama, asked about drug history, admits he inhaled |publisher=International Herald Tribune |date=2006-10-25 |accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref>Setelah SMA, Obama pindah ke [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] lalu ia belajar di [[Perguruan Tinggi Occidental]] selama dua tahun.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oxy Remembers "Barry" Obama '83 |date=2007-01-29 |url=http://www.oxy.edu/x2526.xml |publisher=Occidental College |accessdate=2008-04-13}}</ref> Ia kemudian dipindahkan ke [[Perguruan Tinggi Universitas Columbia|Universitas Columbia]] di [[New York City]], dan kemudian ia lulus dalam bidang [[pengetahuan politik]] dengan kelebihan pada [[hubungan internasional]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.college.columbia.edu/cct_archive/jan05/cover.php |title=Barack Obama '83 |work=Columbia College Today |author=Boss-Bicak, Shira |date=January 2005 |accessdate=2008-06-09}}</ref> Obama lulus dengan [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] dari Columbia tahun 1983, kemudian bekerja selama setahun di [[Business International Corporation]]<ref>{{cite news |first=Sasha |last=Issenberg |title=Obama shows hints of his year in global finance: Tied markets to social aid |date=2008-08-06 |url=http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/08/06/obama_shows_hints_of_his_year_in_global_finance/?page=1 |work=Boston Globe |accessdate=2008-04-13}}</ref> dan kemudian di [[New York Public Interest Research Group]].<ref name="Who's Who 2008">{{cite book |author=Chassie, Karen (ed.) |year=2007 |title=Who's Who in America, 2008 |url=http://www.marquiswhoswho.com/products/WAprodinfo.asp |location=New Providence, NJ |publisher=Marquis Who's Who |isbn=9780837970110 |page=p. 3468 |accessdate=2008-06-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Janny |last=Scott |title=Obama's Account of New York Years Often Differs from What Others Say |date=2007-10-30 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/30/us/politics/30obama.html |work=The New York Times |accessdate=2008-04-13}} Obama (1995), pp. 133–140; Mendell (2007), pp. 62–63.</ref>[[Berkas: Barack-obama-mother.jpg|thumb|left|200pix|Barack Obama dibesarkan oleh ibunya, Ann Dunham.]]Setelah empat tahun di New York City, Obama pindah ke [[Chicago]], lalu ia menjabat sebagai direktur Developing Communities Project (DCP), sebuah [[perkumpulan masyarakat]] berbasis gereja yang sebenarnya terdiri dari delapan paroki Katolik di Roseland Raya ([[Roseland, Chicago|Roseland]], [[West Pullman, Chicago|West Pullman]], dan [[Riverdale, Chicago|Riverdale]]) di [[South Side (Chicago)|South Side]], Chicago, dan bekerja di sana selama tiga tahun mulai Juni 1985 hingga Mei 1988.<ref name="Who's Who 2008"/><ref>{{cite news |author=Secter, Bob; McCormick, John |date=2007-03-30 |title=Portrait of a pragmatist |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0703300121mar30,1,6651421,full.story |work=Chicago Tribune |page=1 |accessdate=2008-06-06}} {{cite news |first=Ryan |last=Lizza |title=The Agitator: Barack Obama's Unlikely Political Education |format=alternate link |date=2007-03-19 |url=http://www.pickensdemocrats.org/info/TheAgitator_070319.htm |work=New Republic |accessdate=2008-04-13}} Obama (1995), pp. 140–295; Mendell (2007), pp. 63–83.</ref> Selama menjabat sebagai direktur DCP, stafnya bertambah dari satu menjadi tiga belas pendapatan per tahunnya meningkat dari $70.000 menjadi $400.000, dengan keberhasilan meliputi membantu membuat program pelatihan kerja, program pelatihan persiapan perguruan tinggi, dan organisasi hak penjual di [[Altgeld Gardens, Chicago|Altgeld Gardens]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Matchan, Linda |date=1990-02-15 |title=A Law Review breakthrough |url=http://search.boston.com/local/Search.do?s.sm.query=&s.author=Linda+Matchan&s.tab=globe&s.si%28simplesearchinput%29.sortBy=-articleprintpublicationdate&docType=&date=&s.startDate=1990-02-15&s.endDate=1990-02-15 |format=paid archive |work=The Boston Globe |page=29 |accessdate=2008-06-06}} {{cite news |author=Corr, John |date=1990-02-27 |title=From mean streets to hallowed halls |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=PI&p_theme=pi&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_trackval=PI&s_search_type=customized&s_dispstring=Author(John%20Corr)%20AND%20date(02/27/1990%20to%2002/27/1990)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=02/27/1990%20to%2002/27/1990)&p_field_advanced-0=Author&p_text_advanced-0=(John%20Corr)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=_rank_:D&xcal_ranksort=4&xcal_useweights=yes |format=paid archive |work=The Philadelphia Inquirer |page=C01 |accessdate=2008-06-06}}</ref> Obama juga bekerja sebagai konsultan dan instruktur untuk [[Gamaliel Foundation]], sebuah institut perkumpulan masyarakat.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Obama, Barack |month=August–September |year=1988 |title=Why organize? Problems and promise in the inner city |journal=Illinois Issues |volume=14 |issue=8–9 |pages=40–42 |accessdate=2008-06-06}} reprinted in: {{cite book |year=1990 |pages=pp. 35–40 |author=Knoepfle, Peg (ed.) |title=After Alinsky: community organizing in Illinois |location=Springfield, IL |publisher=Sangamon State University |isbn=0962087335 |accessdate=2008-06-06}} {{cite news |author=Tayler, Letta; Herbert, Keith |date=2008-03-02 |title=Obama forged path as Chicago community organizer |url=http://www.newsday.com/news/printedition/nation/ny-usobam025598601mar02,0,7841545,full.story |work=Newsday |page=A06 |accessdate=2008-06-06}}</ref> Di pertengahan 1988, ia untuk pertama kalinya mengunjungi Eropa selama tiga minggu dan lima minggu di Kenya, dan ia banyak bertemu [[Keluarga Barack Obama#Hubungan|saudara Kenya]]-nya untuk pertama kalinya.<ref>Obama (1995), pp. 299–437.</ref>Obama masuk [[Sekolah Hukum Harvard]] pada 1988. Pada akhir tahun pertamanya, ia dipilih, menurut kelasnya dan kompetisi menulis, sebagai editor ''[[Harvard Law Review]]''.<ref name="Harvard Law 2007">{{cite news |author=Levenson, Michael; Saltzman, Jonathan |date=2007-01-28 |title=At Harvard Law, a unifying voice |url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/01/28/at_harvard_law_a_unifying_voice/?page=full |work=The Boston Globe |accessdate=2008-06-15}} {{cite news |author=Kantor, Jodi |date=2007-01-28 |title=In law school, Obama found political voice |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/us/politics/28obama.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all |work=The New York Times |page=1 |accessdate=2008-06-15}} {{cite news |author=Kodama, Marie C |date=2007-01-19 |title=Obama left mark on HLS |url=http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=516664 |work=The Harvard Crimson |accessdate=2008-06-15}} {{cite news |author=Mundy, Liza |title=A series of fortunate events |date=2007-08-12 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/08/08/AR2007080802038_pf.html |work=The Washington Post |page=W10 |accessdate=2008-06-15}} {{cite journal |author=Heilemann, John |title=When they were young |date=2007-10-22 |url=http://www.printthis.clickability.com/pt/cpt?action=cpt&title=When+They+Were+Young&expire=&urlID=24417790&fb=Y&url=http%3A%2F%2Fnymag.com%2Fnews%2Ffeatures%2F39321%2F&partnerID=73272 |journal=New York |volume=40 |issue=37 |pages=32–7, 132–3 |accessdate=2008-06-15}} Mendell (2007), pp. 80–92.</ref> Bulan Februari 1990, di tahun keduanya, ia terpilih menjadi presiden ''Law Review'', sebuah posisi sukarela penuh waktu yang berguna sebagai pimpinan editor dan pemantau 80 editor ''Law Review''.<ref name="Harvard Law 1990"> {{cite news |author=Butterfield, Fox |date=1990-02-06|title=First black elected to head Harvard's Law Review |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE2DC1631F935A35751C0A966958260 |work=The New York Times |page=A20 |accessdate=2008-06-15}} {{cite news |author=Ybarra, Michael J |date=1990-02-07 |title=Activist in Chicago now heads Harvard Law Review |url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/28797353.html?dids=28797353:28797353&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT |format=paid archive |work=Chicago Tribune |page=3 |accessdate=2008-06-15}} {{cite news |author=Matchan, Linda |date=1990-02-15 |title=A Law Review breakthrough |url=http://search.boston.com/local/Search.do?s.sm.query=&s.author=Linda+Matchan&s.tab=globe&s.si%28simplesearchinput%29.sortBy=-articleprintpublicationdate&docType=&date=&s.startDate=1990-02-15&s.endDate=1990-02-15 |format=paid archive |work=The Boston Globe |page=29 |accessdate=2008-06-15}} {{cite news |author=Corr, John |date=1990-02-27 |title=From mean streets to hallowed halls |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=PI&p_theme=pi&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_trackval=PI&s_search_type=customized&s_dispstring=Author(John%20Corr)%20AND%20date(02/27/1990%20to%2002/27/1990)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=02/27/1990%20to%2002/27/1990)&p_field_advanced-0=Author&p_text_advanced-0=(John%20Corr)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=_rank_:D&xcal_ranksort=4&xcal_useweights=yes |format=paid archive |work=The Philadelphia Inquirer |page=C01 |accessdate=2008-06-15}} {{cite news |author=Drummond, Tammerlin |date=1990-03-12 |title=Barack Obama's Law; Harvard Law Review's first black president plans a life of public service |url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/60017156.html?dids=60017156:60017156&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT |format=paid archive |work=Los Angeles Times |page=E1 |accessdate=2008-06-15}} {{cite news |author=Pugh, Allison J. (Associated Press) |date=1990-04-18 |title=Law Review's first black president aims to help poor |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=MH&p_theme=realcities2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_site=miami&s_trackval=MH&s_dispstring=Title(Law%20Review's%20first%20black%20president%20aims%20to%20help%20poor)%20AND%20date(04/18/1990%20to%2004/18/1990)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=04/18/1990%20to%2004/18/1990)&p_field_advanced-0=title&p_text_advanced-0=(Law%20Review's%20first%20black%20president%20aims%20to%20help%20poor)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=_rank_:D&xcal_ranksort=4&xcal_useweights=yes |format=paid archive |work=The Miami Herald |page=C01 |accessdate=2008-06-15}}</ref> Pemilihan Obama sebagai [[Daftar orang Afrika-Amerika pertama|presiden ''Law Review'' berkulit hitam pertama]] diketahui secara luas dan diikuti oleh beberapa profil yang panjang.<ref name="Harvard Law 1990"/> Pada musim panas, ia kembali ke Chicago untuk bekerja sebagai ''associate'' musim panas di ''law firm'' [[Sidley Austin|Sidley & Austin]] tahun 1989 dan [[Hopkins & Sutter]] tahun 1990.<ref>{{cite news |author=Aguilar, Louis |date=1990-07-11 |title=Survey: Law firms slow to add minority partners |url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/28774085.html?dids=28774085:28774085&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT |format=paid archive |work=Chicago Tribune |page=1 (Business) |quote=Barack Obama, a summer associate at Hopkins & Sutter in Chicago |accessdate=2008-06-15}}</ref> Setelah lulus dengan [[Penghargaan Latin|''magna cum laude'']] [[Juris Doctor|Juris Doctor (J.D.)]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/may/09/barackobama.uselections20081|title=Barack Obama|last=Adams|first=Richard|date=2007-05-09|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=2008-10-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/973560/Barack-Obama|title=Barack Obama (American politician)|last=Mendell|first=David|accessdate=2008-10-26}}</ref> dari Harvard tahun 1991, ia kembali ke Chicago.<ref name="Harvard Law 2007"/>Publisitas dari pemilihannya sebagai presiden ''Harvard Law Review'' berkulit hitam pertama membawanya pada kontrak penerbitan dan pembuatan buku mengenai hubungan ras.<ref name="Scott 2008a"> {{cite news |author=Scott, Janny |date=2008-05-18 |title=The story of Obama, written by Obama |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/18/us/politics/18memoirs.html?pagewanted=all |work=The New York Times |page=1 |accessdate=2008-06-15}} Obama (1995), pp. xiii–xvii.</ref> Dalam usaha untuk merekrutnya ke fakultas mereka, [[Sekolah Hukum Universitas Chicago]] menyediakan Obama beasiswa dan kantor untuk membuat bukunya.<ref name="Scott 2008a"/> Ia awalnya berencana menyelesaikan buku tersebut dalam satu tahun, tapi ternyata membutuhkan waktu yang lebih lama setelah buku ini berubah menjadi memoir pribadi. Untuk bekerja tanpa gangguan, Obama dan istrinya, [[Michelle Obama|Michelle]], berlibur ke [[Bali]] dan ia menulis bukunya selama beberapa bulan. Manuskrip tersebut akhirnya diterbitkan pada pertengahan 1995 dengan judul ''[[Dreams from My Father]]''.<ref name="Scott 2008a"/>Obama memimpin [[Project Vote]] Illinois mulai April hingga Oktober 1992, dengan registrasi pemilih dnegan sepuluh staf dan tujuh ratus sukarelawan; tujuannya berhasil dengan mendaftarkan 150.000 dari 400.000 orang Afrika-Amerika di negara bagian itu, sehingaga ''Crain's Chicago Business'' menempatkan Obama dalam daftar "40 under Forty" tahun 1993.<ref name="Illinois Blue Book 2000">{{cite book |author=White, Jesse (ed.) |year=2000 |title=Illinois Blue Book, 2000, Millennium ed. |url=http://www.sos.state.il.us/bb/toc.html |location=Springfield, IL |publisher=Illinois Secretary of State |oclc=43923973 |page=p. 83 |accessdate=2008-06-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Jarrett, Vernon |date=1992-08-11 |title='Project Vote' brings power to the people |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CSTB&p_theme=cstb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=(Vernon%20Jarrett)%20AND%20date(8/11/1992%20to%208/11/1992)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=8/11/1992%20to%208/11/1992)&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced-0=(Vernon%20Jarrett)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no |work=Chicago Sun-Times |format=paid archive |page=23 |accessdate=2008-06-06}} {{cite journal |author=Reynolds, Gretchen |month=January |year=1993 |title=Vote of Confidence |url=http://www.chicagomag.com/Chicago-Magazine/January-1993/Vote-of-Confidence |journal=[[Chicago (magazine)|Chicago]] |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=53–54 |accessdate=2008-06-06}} {{cite journal |author=Anderson, Veronica |month=September 27–October 3, |year=1993 |title=40 under Forty: Barack Obama, Director, Illinois Project Vote |journal=[[Crain Communications Inc.|Crain's Chicago Business]] |volume=16 |issue=39 |accessdate=2008-06-06 |pages=43}}</ref>[[Berkas:Ann Dunham with father and children.jpg|thumb|right|Kanan ke kiri: Barack Obama dan [[Maya Soetoro]] dengan ibunya [[Ann Dunham]] dan kakeknya [[Madelyn dan Stanley Dunham|Stanley Dunham]] di Hawaii (awal 1970-an).]]Berawal tahun 1992, Obama mengajarkan [[hukum konstitusional]] di [[Sekolah Hukum Universitas Chicago]] selama dua belas tahun, menjadi yang pertama dikelompokkan sebagai Penceramah sejak 1992 hingga 1996, dan kemudian sebagai Penceramah Senior sejak 1996 hingga 2004.<ref>{{cite web |author=University of Chicago Law School |date=2008-03-27 |title=Statement regarding Barack Obama |publisher=University of Chicago Law School |url=http://www.law.uchicago.edu/media/index.html |accessdate=2008-06-10}} {{cite web |author=Miller, Joe |date=2008-03-28 |title=Was Barack Obama really a constitutional law professor?|publisher=FactCheck.org |url=http://www.factcheck.org/askfactcheck/was_barack_obama_really_a_constitutional_law.html |accessdate=2008-06-10}} {{cite web |author=Holan, Angie Drobnic |date=2008-03-07 |title=Obama's 20 years of experience |url=http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/article/2008/mar/07/obamas-20-years-experience |publisher=PolitiFact.com |accessdate=2008-06-10}}</ref>Ia juga, tahun 1993, bergabung dengan Davis, Miner, Barnhill & Galland, sebuah firma hukum dengan dua belas pengacara yang berpengalaman dalam litigasi hak-hak sipil dan pembangunan ekonomi masyarakat, dan ia adalah seorang ''associate'' selama tiga tahun sejak 1993 hingga 1996, kemudian ''of counsel'' mulai 1996 hingga 2004, dengan lisensi hukumnya berakhir tahun 2002.<ref name="Who's Who 2008"/><ref>{{cite news |author=Robinson, Mike (Associated Press) |date=2007-02-10 |title=Obama got start in civil rights practice |url=http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2007/02/20/obama_got_start_in_civil_rights_practice |work=The Boston Globe |accessdate=2008-06-15}} {{cite news |author=Pallasch, Abdon M |date=2007-12-17 |title=As lawyer, Obama was strong, silent type; He was 'smart, innovative, relentless,' and he mostly let other lawyers do the talking |url=http://www.suntimes.com/news/politics/obama/700499,CST-NWS-Obama-law17.article |work=Chicago Sun-Times |page=4 |accessdate=2008-06-15}} {{cite news |author= |date=1993-06-27 |title=People |url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/24302659.html?dids=24302659:24302659&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT |format=paid archive |work=Chicago Tribune |page=9 (Business) |accessdate=2008-06-15}} {{cite news |author= |date=1993-07-05 |title=Business appointments |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CSTB&p_theme=cstb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=(Business%20appointments)%20AND%20date(7/5/1993%20to%207/5/1993)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=7/5/1993%20to%207/5/1993)&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced-0=(Business%20appointments)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no |format=paid archive |work=Chicago-Sun-Times |page=40 |accessdate=2008-06-15}} {{cite web |author=Miner, Barnhill & Galland |year=2008 |title=About Us |url=http://www.lawmbg.com/index.cfm/PageID/2711 |publisher=Miner, Barnhill & Galland – Chicago, Illinois |accessdate=2008-06-15}} Obama (1995), pp. 438–439, Mendell (2007), pp. 104–106.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=ARDC Individual Attorney Record of Public Registration and Public Disciplinary and Disability Information as of October 17, 2008 at 12:52:13 PM |url=https://www.iardc.org/ldetail.asp?id=595938384 |publisher=Attorney Registration and Disciplinary Commission of the Supreme Court of Illinois |accessdate=2008-10-19}}</ref>Obama adalah anggota pendiri dewan direktur [[Public Allies]] tahun 1992, mengundurkan diri sebelum istrinya, Michelle, menjadi direktor eksekutif pendiri Public Allies Chicago di awal 1993.<ref name="Who's Who 2008"/><ref>{{cite web |author=Public Allies |year=2008 |title=Fact Sheet on Public Allies' History with Senator Barack and Michelle Obama |url=http://www.publicallies.org/site/c.liKUL3PNLvF/b.3960231/ |publisher=[[Public Allies]] |accessdate=2008-06-06}}</ref> Ia menjabat dari 1993 hingga 3008 pada dewan direktur [[Woods Fund of Chicago]], yang pada 1985 telah menjadi yayasan pertama yang mendanai Developing Communities Project, dan juga sejak 1994 hingga 2002 pada dewan direktur The [[Joyce Foundation]].<ref name="Who's Who 2008"/> Obama bekerja pada dewan direktur [[Chicago Annenberg Challenge]] pada 1995-2002, sebagai presiden pendiri dan pimpinan dewan direktur sejak 1995-1999.<ref name="Who's Who 2008"/> Ia juga bekerja pada dewan direktur Chicago Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law, Center for Neighborhood Technology, dan Lugenia Burns Hope Center.<ref name="Who's Who 2008"/>