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Baris 7: {{cite journal \|last1=Thresher-Andrews \|first1=Christopher \|title=An introduction into the world of conspiracy \|journal=PsyPAG Quarterly \|volume=88 \|year=2013 \|pages=5–8 \|url=http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf \|quote=Conspiracy theories are unsubstantiated, less plausible alternatives to the mainstream explanation of the event; they assume everything is intended, with malignity. Crucially, they are also epistemically self-insulating in their construction and arguments.}}</ref> Istilah ini memiliki konotasi negatif, menyiratkan bahwa banding ke konspirasi didasarkan pada prasangka atau bukti yang tidak cukup.<ref name=Byford>{{Cite book \|title=Conspiracy theories : a critical introduction \|last=Byford \|first=Jovan \|date=2011 \|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan \|isbn=9780230349216 \|location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire \|oclc=802867724}}</ref> Teori konspirasi tidak sama dengan konspirasi; sebaliknya, ini mengacu pada konspirasi yang dihipotesiskan dengan karakteristik tertentu, seperti oposisi terhadap konsensus arus utama di antara orang-orang (seperti ilmuwan atau sejarawan) yang memenuhi syarat untuk mengevaluasi keakuratannya.<ref name="Andrade2020">{{cite journal \|last=Andrade \|first=Gabriel \|date=April 2020 \|title=Medical conspiracy theories: Cognitive science and implications for ethics \|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6.pdf \|url-status=live \|journal=Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy \|publisher=Springer on behalf of the European Society for Philosophy of Medicine and Healthcare \|volume=23 \|issue=3 \|pages=505–518 \|doi=10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6 \|doi-access=free \|issn=1572-8633 \|pmc=7161434 \|pmid=32301040 \|s2cid=215787658 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508193924/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6.pdf \|archive-date=8 May 2020 \|access-date=7 October 2021}}</ref> Teori konspirasi menolak pemalsuan dan diperkuat oleh penalaran melingkar: baik bukti yang menentang konspirasi dan tidak adanya bukti untuk itu ditafsirkan kembali sebagai bukti kebenarannya,<ref name="Byford" /><ref name="Keeley1999">{{Cite journal \|last=Keeley \|first=Brian L. \|date=March 1999 \|title=Of Conspiracy Theories \|journal=The Journal of Philosophy \|volume=96 \|issue=3 \|pages=109–126 \|doi=10.2307/2564659\|jstor=2564659 }}</ref> dimana konspirasi menjadi masalah iman daripada sesuatu yang dapat dibuktikan atau disangkal.<ref name="Barkun2003">{{cite book\|last1=Barkun\|first1=Michael\|author-link1=Michael Barkun\|title=A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America\|date=2003\|publisher=University of California Press\|location=Berkeley\|pages=~~3–4~~[https://archive.org/details/cultureconspirac00bark_286/page/n15 3]–4\|title-link=A Culture of Conspiracy}}</ref><ref name="Barkun2011">{{cite book\|last1=Barkun\|first1=Michael\|author-link1=Michael Barkun\|title=Chasing Phantoms: Reality, Imagination, and Homeland Security Since 9/11\|url=https://archive.org/details/chasingphantomsr11bark\|date=2011\|publisher=University of North Carolina Press\|location=Chapel Hill\|page=[https://archive.org/details/chasingphantomsr11bark/page/n30 10]}}</ref> Studi telah menghubungkan kepercayaan pada teori konspirasi dengan ketidakpercayaan pada otoritas dan sinisme politik.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Swami \|first=Viren \|date=2012-08-06 \|title=Social Psychological Origins of Conspiracy Theories: The Case of the Jewish Conspiracy Theory in Malaysia \|journal=Frontiers in Psychology \|location=London, UK \|volume=3 \|pages=280 \|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00280 \|issn=1664-1078 \|pmc=3412387 \|pmid=22888323\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|last=Radnitz \|first=Scott \|title=Citizen Cynics: How People Talk and Think about Conspiracy \|date=2021 \|url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780197573532.001.0001/oso-9780197573532-chapter-9 \|publication-place=University of Washington \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|doi=10.1093/oso/9780197573532.003.0009 \|isbn=978-0-19-757353-2 \|access-date=2022-05-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Jolley \|first1=Daniel \|last2=Douglas \|first2=Karen M. \|date=2014-02-20 \|title=The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions \|journal=PLOS ONE \|language=en \|publication-place=University of Kent \|volume=9 \|issue=2 \|pages=e89177 \|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0089177 \|issn=1932-6203 \|pmc=3930676 \|pmid=24586574\|bibcode=2014PLoSO...989177J \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Beberapa peneliti menyarankan bahwa '''ide konspirasi'''—kepercayaan pada teori konspirasi—mungkin berbahaya secara psikologis atau patologis,<ref name="Freeman 595–604">{{Cite journal\|last1=Freeman\|first1=Daniel\|last2=Bentall\|first2=Richard P.\|date=29 March 2017\|title=The concomitants of conspiracy concerns\|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology\|language=en\|volume=52\|issue=5\|pages=595–604\|doi=10.1007/s00127-017-1354-4\|issn=0933-7954\|pmc=5423964\|pmid=28352955}}</ref><ref name="Barron 156–159">{{Cite journal\|last1=Barron\|first1=David\|last2=Morgan\|first2=Kevin\|last3=Towell\|first3=Tony\|last4=Altemeyer\|first4=Boris\|last5=Swami\|first5=Viren\|date=November 2014\|title=Associations between schizotypy and belief in conspiracist ideation\|journal=Personality and Individual Differences\|language=en\|volume=70\|pages=156–159\|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.040\|url=http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/14570/1/1-s2.0-S0191886914003821-main.pdf}}</ref> dan itu berkorelasi dengan pemikiran analitis yang lebih rendah, kecerdasan rendah, proyeksi psikologis, paranoia, dan Machiavellianisme.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Douglas\|first1=Karen M.\|last2=Sutton\|first2=Robbie M.\|date=12 April 2011\|title=Does it take one to know one? Endorsement of conspiracy theories is influenced by personal willingness to conspire\|url=http://kar.kent.ac.uk/26187/1/Douglas%20%26%20Sutton%202011%20BJSP.pdf\|journal=British Journal of Social Psychology\|volume=10\|issue=3\|pages=544–552\|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8309.2010.02018.x\|pmid=21486312\|access-date=28 December 2018\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103180834/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/26187/1/Douglas%20%26%20Sutton%202011%20BJSP.pdf\|archive-date=3 November 2018\|url-status=live}}</ref> Psikolog biasanya mengaitkan kepercayaan pada teori konspirasi dan menemukan konspirasi di mana tidak ada sejumlah kondisi psikopatologis seperti paranoid, skizotip, narsisisme, dan keterikatan yang tidak aman,<ref name="Andrade2020"/> atau ke bentuk bias kognitif yang disebut "persepsi pola ilusi".<ref>{{cite web \|title=Conspiracy Theorists Really Do See The World Differently, New Study Shows \|url=https://www.sciencealert.com/conspiracy-theory-beliefs-illusory-pattern-perception-cognitive-science \|first=Signe \|last=Dean \|publisher=Science Alert \|date=23 October 2017 \|access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|title=Conspiracy Theorists Have a Fundamental Cognitive Problem, Say Scientists \|url=https://www.inverse.com/article/37463-conspiracy-beliefs-illusory-pattern-perception \|first=Sarah \|last=Sloat \|publisher=Inverse \|date=17 October 2017 \|access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref> Namun, konsensus ilmiah saat ini menyatakan bahwa sebagian besar ahli teori konspirasi tidak patologis, justru karena keyakinan mereka pada akhirnya bergantung pada kecenderungan kognitif yang tertanam secara neurologis pada spesies manusia dan mungkin memiliki asal-usul evolusioner yang mendalam, termasuk kecenderungan alami terhadap kecemasan dan deteksi agensi.<ref name="Andrade2020"/> Secara historis, teori konspirasi telah dikaitkan erat dengan prasangka, propaganda, perburuan penyihir, perang, dan genosida.<ref name="HR">{{cite journal \|author-last=Frankfurter \|author-first=David \|date=February 2021 \|title=Religion in the Mirror of the Other: The Discursive Value of Cult-Atrocity Stories in Mediterranean Antiquity \|editor1-last=Copp \|editor1-first=Paul \|editor2-last=Wedemeyer \|editor2-first=Christian K. \| \|journal=History of Religions \|publisher=University of Chicago Press for the University of Chicago Divinity School \|volume=60 \|issue=3 \|pages=188–208 \|doi=10.1086/711943 \|issn=0018-2710 \|jstor=00182710 \|s2cid=233429880 \|lccn=64001081 \|oclc=299661763}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|author-last=Nefes \|author-first=Turkay \|year=2018 \|chapter=Framing of a Conspiracy Theory: The Efendi Series \|editor1-last=Asprem \|editor1-first=Egil \|editor2-last=Dyrendal \|editor2-first=Asbjørn \|editor3-last=Robertson \|editor3-first=David G. \|title=Handbook of Conspiracy Theory and Contemporary Religion \|location=Leiden \|publisher=Brill Publishers \|series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion \|volume=17 \|doi=10.1163/9789004382022_020 \|isbn=978-90-04-38150-6 \|issn=1874-6691 \|pages=407–422 \|s2cid=158560266 \|quote=Conspiracy theories often function as popular conduits of ethno-religious hatred and conflict.}}</ref> Mereka sering sangat diyakini oleh para pelaku serangan teroris, dan digunakan sebagai pembenaran oleh Timothy McVeigh dan Anders Breivik, serta oleh pemerintah seperti Nazi Jerman, Uni Soviet, dan Turki.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Göknar \|first1=Erdağ \|title=Conspiracy Theory in Turkey: Politics and Protest in the Age of "Post-Truth" by Julian de Medeiros (review) \|journal=The Middle East Journal \|date=2019 \|volume=73 \|issue=2 \|pages=336–337 \|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/730239 \|language=en \|issn=1940-3461}}</ref> Penyangkalan AIDS oleh pemerintah Afrika Selatan, dimotivasi oleh teori konspirasi, menyebabkan sekitar 330.000 kematian akibat AIDS, QAnon dan penyangkalan tentang hasil pemilihan presiden Amerika Serikat 2020 menyebabkan serangan Capitol Amerika Serikat 2021,<ref name="Nature 2021">{{cite magazine \|last=Tollefson \|first=Jeff \|date=4 February 2021 \|title=Tracking QAnon: how Trump turned conspiracy-theory research upside down \|url=https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-021-00257-y/d41586-021-00257-y.pdf \|url-status=live \|magazine=Nature \|volume=590 \|pages=192–193 \|publisher=Nature Research \|doi=10.1038/d41586-021-00257-y \|doi-access=free \|issn=1476-4687 \|lccn=12037118 \|pmid=33542489 \|s2cid=231818589 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427105931/https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-021-00257-y/d41586-021-00257-y.pdf \|archive-date=27 April 2021 \|access-date=7 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Crossley 2021">{{cite journal \|last=Crossley \|first=James \|date=September 2021 \|title=The Apocalypse and Political Discourse in an Age of COVID \|journal=Journal for the Study of the New Testament \|publisher=SAGE Publications \|volume=44 \|issue=1 \|pages=93–111 \|doi=10.1177/0142064X211025464 \|doi-access=free \|issn=1745-5294 \|s2cid=237329082 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|title=QAnon Capitol Siege Trump \|newspaper=The Washington Post \|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/01/13/qanon-capitol-siege-trump/ \|access-date=22 February 2021}}</ref> sementara kepercayaan pada teori konspirasi tentang makanan yang dimodifikasi secara genetik membuat pemerintah Zambia menolak bantuan makanan selama kelaparan, pada saat tiga juta orang di negara itu menderita kelaparan. Teori konspirasi merupakan hambatan yang signifikan untuk perbaikan kesehatan masyarakat, mendorong oposisi terhadap vaksinasi dan fluoridasi air antara lain, dan telah dikaitkan dengan wabah penyakit yang dapat dicegah dengan vaksin. Efek lain dari teori konspirasi termasuk berkurangnya kepercayaan pada bukti ilmiah, radikalisasi dan penguatan ideologi kelompok-kelompok ekstremis, dan konsekuensi negatif bagi perekonomian. Baris 49: Hofstadter, Richard. ''The paranoid style in American politics'' (1954). [https://web.archive.org/web/20170116220729/http://www.fuminyang.com/michelle/Paranoid%20Style.pdf online] * {{cite book\|author=Johnson, George\|year=1983\|title=Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics\|location=Los Angeles\|publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher\|isbn=978-0-87477-275-3\|url=https://archive.org/details/architectsoffear00john}} * {{cite book \|author1=McConnachie, James \|author2=Tudge, Robin \| year = 2005 \| title = The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories \|url=https://archive.org/details/roughguidetocons0000mcco_l5y7 \| publisher = Rough Guides \| isbn = 978-1-84353-445-7}} * {{cite book\|author=Melley, Timothy\|year=1999\|title=Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America\|location=Ithaca, New York\|publisher=Cornell University Press\|isbn=978-0-8014-8606-7}} * {{cite web \|first = James B. \|last = Meigs \|year = 2006 \|url= http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/research/4199607.html \|title = The Conspiracy Industry \|work = Popular Mechanics \|publisher = Hearst Communications, Inc. \|access-date = 13 October 2006 \|url-status = dead \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061024062122/http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/research/4199607.html \|archive-date = 24 October 2006 }} Baris 56: * Oliver, J. Eric, and Thomas J. Wood. "Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style (s) of mass opinion." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 58.4 (2014): 952–966. [http://hon3397p.wp.txstate.edu/files/2015/08/OliverWood.pdf online] * {{cite news \|last = Parsons \|first = Charlotte \|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1561199.stm \|title = Why we need conspiracy theories \|work = BBC News – Americas \|publisher = BBC \|access-date=26 June 2006 \|date=24 September 2001}} * {{cite book\|author=Pipes, Daniel\|year=1998\|title=The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy\|url=https://archive.org/details/hiddenhand00dani\|location=New York\|publisher=St. Martin's Press\|isbn=978-0-312-17688-4}} * {{cite book\|author=Pipes, Daniel\|year=1997\|title=Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From\|url=https://archive.org/details/conspiracyhowpar0000pipe\|location=New York\|publisher=The Free Press\|isbn=978-0-684-87111-0}} * {{cite journal \|title=Popper Revisited, or What Is Wrong With Conspiracy Theories? \|journal=Philosophy of the Social Sciences \|year=1995 \|last=Pigden \|first=Charles \|volume=25 \|issue=1 \|pages=3–34 \|doi=10.1177/004839319502500101\|s2cid=143602969 }} * {{cite book\|author=Sagan, Carl\|year=1996\|title=The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark\|url=https://archive.org/details/demonhauntedworl0000saga\|location=New York\|publisher=The Random House\|isbn=978-0-394-53512-8}} * Slosson, W. [https://archive.org/stream/unpopularreview07newy#page/394/mode/2up ''"The 'Conspiracy' Superstition"'']. The Unpopular Review, Vol. VII, N°. 14, 1917. * Sunstein, Cass R., and Adrian Vermeule. "Conspiracy theories: Causes and cures." ''Journal of Political Philosophy'' 17.2 (2009): 202–227. [http://www.ask-force.org/web/Discourse/Sunstein-Conspiracy-Theories-2009.pdf online] * Uscinski, Joseph E. and Joseph M. Parent, ''American Conspiracy Theories'' (2014) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199351813/ excerpt] * Uscinski, Joseph E. "The 5 Most Dangerous Conspiracy Theories of 2016" [http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/08/conspiracy-theories-2016-donald-trump-hillary-clinton-214183 ''POLITICO Magazine'' (Aug 22, 2016)] * {{cite book\|author1=Vankin, Jonathan\|author2=John Whalen\|year=2004\|title=The 80 Greatest Conspiracies of All Time\|url=https://archive.org/details/80greatestconspi0000vank\|location=New York\|publisher=Citadel Press\|isbn=978-0-8065-2531-0}} * Wood, Gordon S. "Conspiracy and the paranoid style: causality and deceit in the eighteenth century." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' (1982): 402–441. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1919580 in jstor]

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