Pengepungan Konstantinopel (717–718): Perbedaan antara revisi
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== Latar belakang ==
Setelah [[Pengepungan Pertama Konstantinopel oleh Arab]] (674–678), baik [[Bangsa Arab|Arab]] maupun [[Kekaisaran Bizantium|Bizantium]] mengalami periode yang damai. Setelah tahun 680, [[Kekhalifahan Umayyah]] menderita [[Perang saudara Islam kedua|Perang Saudara Islam Kedua]] dan kebangkitan Bizantium yang terjadi kemudian di Timur memungkinkan Bizantium untuk menarik upeti berjumlah besar dari pemerintah Umayyah di [[Damaskus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lilie|1976|pp=81–82, 97–106}}.</ref> Pada tahun 692, setelah Umayyah berhasil menghentikan Perang Saudara Muslim, Kaisar [[Justinianus II]] (berkuasa. 685–695 dan 705–711) kembali memicu permusuhan dengan Umayyah. Hasilnya adalah serangkaian kemenangan Arab yang berujung pada lepasnya kendali Bizantium atas Armenia dan kepangeranan-kepangeranan Kaukasus, serta gangguan bertahap terhadap wilayah Bizantium. Dari tahun ke tahun, para jenderal Kekhalifahan, biasanya anggota keluarga Umayyah, melancarkan serbuan ke wilayah Bizantium dan merebut benteng dan kota.<ref>{{harvnb|Blankinship|1994|p=31}}; {{harvnb|Haldon|1990|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|pp=107–120}}.</ref> Setelah 712, sistem pertahanan Bizantium mulai menampakkan tanda-tanda keruntuhan: semakin lama, serbuan Arab menembus semakin dalam ke [[Asia Kecil]], benteng-benteng di perbatasan berulang kali diserang dan dijarah, dan reaksi Bizantium semakin lama semakin lemah.<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|p=80}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|pp=120–122, 139–140}}.</ref> Dalam usaha ini, Arab dibantu oleh adanya [[Anarki Dua Puluh Tahun|periode ketidastabilan dalam negeri yang berkepanjangan]], yang berlangsung menyusul penggulingan pertama Justinianus II pada 695. Selama periode ini, tahta Biznatium tujuh kali berpindah tangan dalam revolusi yang keras.<ref>{{harvnb|Blankinship|1994|p=31}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|p=140}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|pp=345–346}}.</ref> Meskipun demikian, seperti disebutkan oleh ahli Bizantium [[Warren Treadgold]], "Serangan Arab bagaimanapun juga semakin meningkat setelah berakhirnya perang saudara ... Dengan tenaga manusia, lahan, dan kekayaan yang lebih besar daripada Bizantium, Arab mulai memusatkan seluruh kekuatan mereka untuk melawan Bizantium. Kini mereka berniat sepenuhnya meruntuhkan kekaisaran itu dengan menaklukan ibukotanya."<ref name="Treadgold345">{{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=345}}.</ref>
== Tahap pembukaan kampanye ==
[[File:Solidus-Anastasius II-sb1463.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''[[solidus (koin)|Solidus]]'' [[emas]] Anastasios II (r. 713–715), yang mempersiapkan Konstantinopel untuk kedatangan serangan Arab]]
<!--The Arab successes opened the way for a second assault on [[Constantinople]], an undertaking already initiated under Caliph [[al-Walid I]] (r. 705–715). Following his death, his brother and successor [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik|Sulayman]] (r. 715–717) took up the project with increased vigour, allegedly because of a prophecy that a Caliph bearing the name of a [[prophet]] would capture Constantinople; Sulayman ([[Solomon]]) was the only member of the Umayyad family to bear such a name. According to [[Syriac]] sources, the new Caliph swore "to not stop fighting against Constantinople before having exhausted the country of the Arabs or to have taken the city".<ref>{{harvnb|Brooks|1899|pp=20–21}}; {{harvnb|El-Cheikh|2004|p=65}}; {{harvnb|Guilland|1959|p=110}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|p=122}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=344}}.</ref> The Umayyad forces began assembling at the plain of [[Dabiq]] north of Aleppo, under the direct supervision of the Caliph. As Sulayman was too sick to campaign himself, however, he entrusted command to his brother [[Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik]].<ref>{{harvnb|Guilland|1959|pp=110–111}}.</ref> The operation against Constantinople came at a time when the Umayyad state experienced a period of continuous expansion to the east and west. Muslim armies advanced into [[Transoxiana]], [[Indian subcontinent|India]] and the [[Visigothic Kingdom]] of [[Hispania]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hawting|2000|p=73}}.</ref>
Arab preparations, especially the construction of a large fleet, did not go unnoticed by the worried Byzantines. Emperor [[Anastasios II]] (r. 713–715) sent an embassy to Damascus under the [[patrikios|patrician]] and [[Eparch of Constantinople|urban prefect]], Daniel of [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinop]]e, ostensibly in order to plea for peace, but in reality to spy on the Arabs. Anastasios, in turn, began to prepare for the inevitable siege: the [[Walls of Constantinople|fortifications]] of Constantinople were repaired and equipped with ample artillery, while food stores were brought into the city and those inhabitants who could not stockpile food to last for three years evacuated.<ref>{{harvnb|Mango|Scott|1997|p=534}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|pp=122–123}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|pp=343–344}}.</ref> Anastasios strengthened his navy and in early 715 dispatched it against the Arab fleet that had come to the shores of [[Lycia]] at [[Finike|Phoenix]]—it is also likely that this is a confusion with [[Fenaket|Phoenix]] across [[Rhodes]],<ref>{{harvnb|Mango|Scott|1997|p=537 (Note #5)}}.</ref> and perhaps even with [[Phoenicia]] (modern [[Lebanon]]), famed for its [[Cedrus libani|cedar]] forests<ref>{{harvnb|Lilie|1976|p=123 (Note #62)}}.</ref>—to collect timber for their ships. At Rhodes, however, the Byzantine fleet, encouraged by the soldiers of the [[Opsician Theme]], rebelled, killed their commander John the Deacon and sailed north to [[Adramyttium]]. There, they raised a rather reluctant former tax collector Emperor [[Theodosios III]].<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|p=80}}; {{harvnb|Mango|Scott|1997|pp=535–536}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|pp=123–124}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=344}}.</ref> Anastasios crossed into [[Bithynia]] in the Opsician Theme to confront the rebellion, but the rebel fleet sailed on to [[Chrysopolis]]. From there, it launched attacks against Constantinople, until, in late summer, sympathizers within the capital opened its gates to them. Anastasios held out at [[Nicaea (city)|Nicaea]] for several months, finally agreeing to resign and retire as a monk.<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|pp=80, 82}}; {{harvnb|Mango|Scott|1997|p=536}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|pp=344–345}}.</ref> The accession of Theodosios, who by all accounts was both unwilling and incapable, as a puppet emperor of the Opsicians provoked the reaction of the other themes, especially the [[Anatolics]] and the [[Armeniacs]] under their respective ''[[strategos|strategoi]]'' (generals) [[Leo the Isaurian]] and [[Artabasdus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lilie|1976|p=124}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=345}}.</ref>
[[File:Anatolia ca 740 AD.svg|thumb|250px|left|Map of Byzantine Asia Minor and Thrace circa 740 AD]]
In these conditions of near-civil war, the Arabs began their carefully prepared advance. In September 715, the vanguard, under general Sulayman ibn Mu'ad, marched over [[Cilicia]] into Asia Minor, taking the strategic fortress of [[Loulon]] on its way. They wintered at Afik, an unidentified location near the western exit of the [[Cilician Gates]]. In early 716, Sulayman's army continued into central Asia Minor. The Umayyad fleet under Umar ibn Hubaira cruised along the Cilician coast, while Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik awaited developments with the main army in Syria.<ref>{{harvnb|Guilland|1959|p=111}}; {{harvnb|Mango|Scott|1997|p=538}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|pp=123–125}}.</ref>
The Arabs hoped that the disunity among the Byzantines would play to their advantage. Maslamah had already established contact with Leo the Isaurian. French scholar Rodolphe Guilland theorized that he offered to become a [[vassal]] of the Caliphate, although the Byzantine general intended to use the Arabs for his own purposes. In turn, Maslamah supported Leo hoping to maximize confusion and weaken the Empire, easing his own task of taking Constantinople.<ref>{{harvnb|Guilland|1959|pp=118–119}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|p=125}}.</ref>
Sulayman's first objective was the strategically important fortress of [[Amorium]], which the Arabs intended to use as a base the following winter. Amorium had been left defenceless in the turmoil of the civil war and would have easily fallen, but the Arabs chose to bolster Leo's position as a counterweight to Theodosios. They offered the city terms of surrender if its inhabitants would acknowledge Leo as emperor. The fortress capitulated, but still did not open its gates to the Arabs. Leo came to the vicinity with a handful of soldiers and executed a series of ruses and negotiations to garrison 800 men in the town. The Arab army, thwarted in its objective and with supplies running low, withdrew. Leo escaped to [[Pisidia]] and, in summer, supported by Artabasdus, was crowned emperor.<ref>{{harvnb|Mango|Scott|1997|pp=538–539}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|pp=125–126}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=345}}.</ref><ref>For a detailed examination of Leo's negotiations with the Arabs before Amorium in Byzantine and Arab sources, cf. {{harvnb|Guilland|1959|pp=112–113, 124–126}}.</ref>
[[File:Leo III solidus 641320.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gold ''solidus'' of Leo III]]
Leo's success was a stroke of luck for Byzantium, since Maslamah with the main Arab army had in the meantime crossed the [[Taurus Mountains]] and was marching straight for Amorium. In addition, as the Arab general had not received news of Leo's double-dealing, he did not devastate the territories he marched through—the Armeniac and Anatolic themes, whose governors he still believed to be his allies.<ref>{{harvnb|Guilland|1959|p=125}}; {{harvnb|Mango|Scott|1997|pp=539–540}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|pp=126–127}}.</ref> On meeting up with Sulayman's retreating army and learning what had transpired, Maslamah changed direction: he attacked [[Akroinon]] and from there marched to the western coastlands to spend the winter. On his way, he sacked [[Sardis]] and [[Pergamon]]. The Arab fleet wintered in Cilicia.<ref>{{harvnb|Guilland|1959|pp=113–114}}; {{harvnb|Mango|Scott|1997|pp=540–541}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|p=127}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=345}}.</ref> Leo, in the meantime, began his own march on Constantinople. He captured [[Nicomedia]], where he found and captured, among other officials, Theodosios's son, and then marched to Chrysopolis. In spring 717, after short negotiations, he secured Theodosios's resignation and his recognition as emperor, entering the capital on 25 March. Theodosios and his son were allowed to retire to a monastery as monks and Artabasdus was promoted to the position of ''[[kouropalates]]'' and receiving the hand of Leo's daughter, [[Anna, wife of Artabasdos|Anna]].<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|pp=82–83}}; {{harvnb|Mango|Scott|1997|pp=540, 545}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|pp=127–128}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=345}}.</ref>-->
== Referensi ==
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