HIV-AIDS: Perbedaan antara revisi

Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan
Aji Sutopo (bicara | kontrib)
←Membuat halaman berisi 'HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) adalah virus penyebab AIDS yang menyerang sel darah putih manusia yang merupakan bagian terpenting dalam sistem kekebalan tubuh manu...'
Tag: tanpa kategori [ * ] tanpa wikifikasi [ * ]
 
Aji Sutopo (bicara | kontrib)
merapikan sub halaman, tata tulis serta menambah nomer pada referensi
Baris 1:
== HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) ==
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) adalah virus penyebab AIDS yang menyerang sel darah putih manusia yang merupakan bagian terpenting dalam sistem kekebalan tubuh manusia. Virus ini hidup di dalam darah penderita HIV, virus ini juga tidak memandang usia, warna kulit, orientasi seksual, agama maupum faktor pembeda lainnya. Sekali saja HIV hidup dalam tubuh kita, itu artinya kita sudah terinfeksi virus ini, dan sejauh ini belum ada obat untuk memusnahkan virus HIV ini, namun masih banyak upaya-upaya yang dapat kita lakukan untuk menghindari virus HIV.
 
== AIDS (Aquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) ==
AIDS (Aquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) adalah kumpulan gejala penyakit syndrome akibat menurunnya sistem kekebalan tubuh manusia. Atau suatu kumpulan gejala penyakit yang disebabkan oleh virus HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) yang merusak sel-sel kekebalan tubuh manusia.
 
Sejarah Virus HIV/AIDS
== Sejarah Virus HIV/AIDS ==
AIDS bermula dari daratan Afrika. Sejarah HIV/AIDS ini bermula dari kebiasaan masyarakat setempat mengosumsi daging kera. Darah kera yang mengandung virus HIV itu lalu masuk ke tubuh manusia, dan kemungkinan mereka menyantap daging kera teresebut karena budaya mereka. Virus ini menyebar di benua Afrika jauh sebelum penelitian AIDS dilakukan. Namun kematian yang dilaporkan bukan karena HIV/AIDS saja, melainkan penyakit seperti TBC dan sesak napas lainnya, dan kemungkinan penyakit ini juga termasuk gejala-gejala awal HIV/AIDS (namun ada juga yang tidak).
 
Sejarah HIV/AIDS lainnya bermula pada tahun 1983 dari keberhasilan penelitian oleh Jean Claude Cherman dan rekannya Francoise Barre Sinoussi dari Perancis, yang berhasil membuktikan bahwa virus HIV adalah penyebab penyakit AIDS. Nama AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) sendiri diberi nama oleh Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), di Atlanta, AS. Sebelumnya Jean Claude Cherman menyebutnya HTLV-III atau LAV.
 
Perkembangan virus HIV Dan AIDS
== Perkembangan Virus HIV/AIDS ==
Dalam proses perkembangan virus HIV dari infeksi menjadi penyakit AIDS ada 4 fase, yaitu Fase 1
 
=== Fase 1 ===
Fase ini dimulai tepat setelah infeksi, dan berlangsung selama beberapa minggu. Fase 1 ditandai dengan tidak enak badan seperti flu, meski pada 20% penderita mengalami flu yang parah, namun tes HIV yang dilakukan pada fase ini mungkin menunjukkan bahwa penderita tidak terinfeksi HIV.
 
Fase 2
=== Fase 2 ===
Fase ini adalah tahap terpanjang diantara fase lainnya, bahkan dapat berlangsung hingga 10 tahun. Pada fase ini gejala pada penderita hampir tidak terlihat, padahal sebenarnnya pada fase inilah virus sedang berkembang. Secara perlahan HIV menghancurkan sel-sel CD-4 yang berjumlah banyak untuk melawan penyakit, dengan sedikitnya sel-sel CD-4 yang penderita miliki, sistem kekebalan tubuh penderita akan terus menurun, walaupun tubuh akan mengganti sel CD-4 yang rusak sebanyak mungkin, namun tetap saja sel CD-4 akan kalah dengan perkembangan virus HIV yang berkembang sangat cepat.
 
Fase 3
=== Fase 3 ===
Fase ini dimulai ketika sel CD-4 dalam tubuh sudah dikuasai virus HIV. Ketika sistem kekebalan tubuh sudah gagal, penyakit-penyakit akan mudah masuk ke dalam tubuh penderita, dan ironisnya penyakit ini mengendalikan tubuh penderita dan berbagai gejala penyakitpun berkembang. Pada awalnya terjadi gejala-gejala ringan seperti: lelah, diare, inveksi jamur, demam, berkeringat pada malam hari , berat badan terus menurun, pembengkakkan elenjar limpa, sariawan terus menerus. Tetapi seiring dengan melemahnya sistem kekebalan tubuh, gejala-gejala ini akan semakin parah.
 
Fase 4
=== Fase 4 ===
Pada fase ini, ketika gejala-gejala penyakit seperti Tuberculosis (Kanker) menjadi semakin parah, selanjutnya penderita didiagnosis menderita AIDS. Pada fase ini obat-obatan anti virus hanya bisa memperlambat perkembangan virus HIV saja.
 
Penemu Virus HIV/AIDS
== Penemu Virus HIV/AIDS ==
London – Dua ilmuan yang menemukan HIV berbagi Nobel Kedokteran dengan ilmuan yang mengaitkan HPV dengan kangker rahim. Adapun kedua ilmuan ini masing- masing Barre Sinoussi dan Luc Montagnier. Keduanya dinilai berjasa dengan penelitian mereka dalam menemukan virus penyebab AIDS.
 
Komite Nobel mengatakan penemuan kedua warga perancis itu amat vital dalam membantu para ilmuan memahami biologi dari virus yang mengancam dunia. Lebih dari 25 juta orang meninggal karena HIV/AIDS sejak tahun 1981 dan di seluruh dunia tercatat 33 juta orang yang mengidap virus HIV.
 
Temuan Sinoussi dan Montagnier antara lain mendorong metode diagnose pasien maupun dalam memeriksa darah, yang membatasi penyebaran wabah HIV/AIDS. Walau masih belum ditemukan obat untuk HIV,dalam beberapa tahun belakangan penyakit itu tidak lagi menjadi hukuman mati langsung bagi penderitanya.
Temuan Sinoussi dan Montagnier antara lain mendorong metode diagnose pasien maupun dalam memeriksa darah, yang membatasi penyebaran wabah HIV/AIDS. Walau masih belum ditemukan obat untuk HIV,dalam beberapa tahun belakangan penyakit itu tidak lagi menjadi hukuman mati langsung bagi penderitanya. Pengobatan saat ini sudah berhasil memperpanjang masa hidup pengidap HIV sampai puluhan tahun.Sementara itu Harald zur Hausen, asal jerman, meraih Nobel Kedokteran karena jasanya dalam mengaitkan HPV, atau human papilloma virus, dengan kanker rahim.
 
Penyebaran Dan Tanda-tanda Terserang HIV/AIDS.
== Penyebaran Dan TandaTerserang HIV/AIDS ==
HIV tidak ditularkan atau disebarkan melalui hubungan sosial yang biasa seperti jabatan tangan, bersentuhan, berciuman biasa, berpelukan, penggunaan peralatan makan dan minum, gigitan nyamuk, kolam renang, penggunaan kamar mandi atau WC/Jamban yang sama atau tinggal serumah bersama Orang Dengan HIV/AIDS (ODHA). ODHA yaitu pengidap HIV atau AIDS. Sedangkan OHIDA (Orang hidup dengan HIV atau AIDS) yakni keluarga (anak, istri, suami, ayah, ibu) atau teman-teman pengidap HIV atau AIDS.
 
Lebih dari 80% infeksi HIV diderita oleh kelompok usia produktif terutama laki-laki, tetapi proporsi penderita HIV perempuan cenderung meningkat. Infeksi pada bayi dan anak, 90 % terjadi dari Ibu pengidap HIV. Hingga beberapa tahun, seorang pengidap HIV tidak menunjukkan gejala-gejala klinis tertular HIV, namun demikian orang tersebut dapat menularkan kepada orang lain. Setelah itu, AIDS mulai berkembang dan menunjukkan tanda-tanda atau gejala-gejala.Tanda-tanda klinis penderita AIDS :
* Berat badan menurun lebih dari 10 % dalam 1 bulan
* Diare kronis yang berlangsung lebih dari 1 bulan
* Demam berkepanjangan lebih dari1 bulan
* Penurunan kesadaran dan gangguan-gangguan neurologis
* Dimensia/HIV ensefalopati
 
Gejala minor :
=== Gejala minor ===
Batuk menetap lebih dari 1 bulan
* Batuk menetap lebih dari 1 bulan
Dermatitis generalisata yang gatal
* Dermatitis generalisata yang gatal
Adanya Herpes zoster multisegmental dan berulang
* Adanya Herpes zoster multisegmental dan berulang
Infeksi jamur berulang pada alat kelamin wanita
* Infeksi jamur berulang pada alat kelamin wanita
Penularan Virus HIV/AIDS
 
== Penularan Virus HIV/AIDS ==
Virus HIV terdapat dalam darah, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa semua specimen yang berupa cairan tubuh yang berasal dari tubuh penderita HIV dapat dipastikan infeksius dan sangat potensial untuk menularkan virus ini pada orang lain (namun ada juga cairan lain yang tidak tercemar virus HIV ini, salah satunya adalah air liur), termasuk ketika seorang penderita HIV positif melakukan hubungan seksual dengan pasangannya, dan bukan tidak mungkin bila nanti pasangan seksualnya tersebut akan terinfeksi virus HIV juga, apalagi jika tidak menggunakan pengaman (kondom).
 
Baik penderita pria maupun wanita sangat riskan untuk menularkan virus HIV ini pada pasangan seksualnya ketika berhubungan badan, yakni melalui cairan sperma bagi penderita pria, dan melalui darah menstruasi atau cairan lain pada vagina bagi penderita wanita. Selain melalui hubungan seksual, HIV juga dapat ditularkan melalui jarum suntik yang digunakan bersamaan oleh seseorang yang terinfeksi HIV dengan orang yang tidak terinfeksi HIV, dan kemungkinan besar orang yang tidak terinfeksi HIV ini akan terinfeksi HIV. Virus HIV juga dapat ditularkan oleh seorang ibu yang positif terinfeksi HIV kepada bayinya pada waktu hamil atau menyusui, karena air susu yang diberikan sang ibu positif terinfeksi HIV.
 
Pencegahan Dan Penanggulangan HIV/AIDS
== Pencegahan Dan Penanggulangan HIV/AIDS ==
Hindarkan hubungan seksual diluar nikah. Usahakan hanya berhubungan dengan satu orang pasangan seksual, tidak berhubungan dengan orang lain.
Pergunakan kondom bagi resiko tinggi apabila melakukan hubungan seksual.Kelompok resiko tinggi di anjurkan untuk menjadi donor darah.
Ibu yang darahnya telah diperiksa dan ternyata mengandung virus, hendaknya jangan hamil. Karena akan memindahkan virus AIDS pada janinnya.
Kelompok resiko tinggi di anjurkan untuk menjadi donor darah.
Penggunaan jarum suntik dan alat lainnya ( akupuntur, tato, tindik ) harus dijamin sterilisasinya.
 
Referensi
== Referensi ==
1. ^ Marx, J. L. (1982). "New disease baffles medical community". Science 217 (4560): 618–621. PubMed.
# ^ Marx, J. L. (1982). "New disease baffles medical community". Science 217 (4560): 618–621. PubMed.
2. ^ Divisions of HIV/AIDS Prevention (2003). "HIV and Its Transmission". Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. Diakses tanggal 2006-05-23.
3. # ^ SanDivisions Franciscoof HIV/AIDS FoundationPrevention (2006-04-142003). "How HIV isand spreadIts Transmission". Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. Diakses tanggal 2006-05-23.
# ^ San Francisco AIDS Foundation (2006-04-14). "How HIV is spread". Diakses tanggal 2006-05-23.
4. ^ Gao, F., Bailes, E., Robertson, D. L., Chen, Y., Rodenburg, C. M., Michael, S. F., Cummins, L. B., Arthur, L. O., Peeters, M., Shaw, G. M., Sharp, P. M. and Hahn, B. H. (1999). "Origin of HIV-1 in the Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes". Nature 397 (6718): 436–441. PubMed DOI:10.1038/17130.
# ^ Gao, F., Bailes, E., Robertson, D. L., Chen, Y., Rodenburg, C. M., Michael, S. F., Cummins, L. B., Arthur, L. O., Peeters, M., Shaw, G. M., Sharp, P. M. and Hahn, B. H. (1999). "Origin of HIV-1 in the Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes". Nature 397 (6718): 436–441. PubMed DOI:10.1038/17130.
5. ^ a b c d e f g h i UNAIDS (2006). "Overview of the global AIDS epidemic" (PDF). 2006 Report on the global AIDS epidemic (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2006-06-08.
6# ^ a b c d e f g h i UNAIDS (2006). "Overview of the global AIDS epidemic" (PDF). 2006 Report on the global AIDS epidemic (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2006-06-08.
# ^ a b Palella, F. J. Jr, Delaney, K. M., Moorman, A. C., Loveless, M. O., Fuhrer, J., Satten, G. A., Aschman and D. J., Holmberg, S. D. (1998). "Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators". N. Engl. J. Med 338 (13): 853–860. PubMed.
7. # ^ Holmes, C. B., Losina, E., Walensky, R. P., Yazdanpanah, Y., Freedberg, K. A. (2003). "Review of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-related opportunistic infections in sub-Saharan Africa". Clin. Infect. Dis. 36 (5): 656–662. PubMed.
8. # ^ Guss, D. A. (1994). "The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 1". J. Emerg. Med. 12 (3): 375–384. PubMed.
9. # ^ Guss, D. A. (1994). "The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 2". J. Emerg. Med. 12 (4): 491–497. PubMed.
# ^ Feldman, C. (2005). "Pneumonia associated with HIV infection". Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 18 (2): 165–170. PubMed.
10. ^ Dahulu pernah dinamakan Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), dan sekarang singkatannya masih digunakan tetapi merupakan kependekan dari Pneumocystis pneumonia.
11. # ^ FeldmanDecker, C. F. and Lazarus, A. (20052000). "PneumoniaTuberculosis associated withand HIV infection". Curr.How Opin.to Infectsafely treat both disorders concurrently". DisPostgrad Med. 18108 (2): 165–17057–60, 65–68. PubMed.
12. # ^ DeckerZaidi, CS. FA. and& LazarusCervia, AJ. S. (20002002). "TuberculosisDiagnosis and HIVmanagement infection.of Howinfectious toesophagitis safelyassociated treatwith bothhuman disordersimmunodeficiency concurrentlyvirus infection". PostgradJ. MedInt. 108Assoc. Physicians AIDS Care (Chic Ill) 1 (2): 57–60, 65–6853–62. PubMed.
# ^ Guerrant, R. L., Hughes, J. M., Lima, N. L., Crane, J. (1990). "Diarrhea in developed and developing countries: magnitude, special settings, and etiologies". Rev. Infect. Dis. 12 (Suppl 1): S41–S50. PubMed. 15. ^ Luft, B. J. and Chua, A. (2000). "Central Nervous System Toxoplasmosis in HIV Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy". Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. 2 (4): 358–362. PubMed.
13. ^ Zaidi, S. A. & Cervia, J. S. (2002). "Diagnosis and management of infectious esophagitis associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection". J. Int. Assoc. Physicians AIDS Care (Chic Ill) 1 (2): 53–62. PubMed.
# ^ Sadler, M. and Nelson, M. R. (1997). "Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV". Int. J. STD AIDS 8 (6): 351–357. PubMed.
14. ^ Guerrant, R. L., Hughes, J. M., Lima, N. L., Crane, J. (1990). "Diarrhea in developed and developing countries: magnitude, special settings, and etiologies". Rev. Infect. Dis. 12 (Suppl 1): S41–S50. PubMed.
# ^ Gray, F., Adle-Biassette, H., Chrétien, F., Lorin de la Grandmaison, G., Force, G., Keohane, C. (2001). "Neuropathology and neurodegeneration in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pathogenesis of HIV-induced lesions of the brain, correlations with HIV-associated disorders and modifications according to treatments". Clin. Neuropathol. 20 (4): 146–155. PubMed.
15. ^ Luft, B. J. and Chua, A. (2000). "Central Nervous System Toxoplasmosis in HIV Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy". Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. 2 (4): 358–362. PubMed.
# ^ Grant, I., Sacktor, H., and McArthur, J. (2005). "HIV neurocognitive disorders" (PDF). Di H. E. Gendelman, I. Grant, I. Everall, S. A. Lipton, and S. Swindells. (ed.). The Neurology of AIDS (PDF) (2nd ed.). London, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 357–373. ISBN 0-19-852610-5.
16. ^ Sadler, M. and Nelson, M. R. (1997). "Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV". Int. J. STD AIDS 8 (6): 351–357. PubMed.
# ^ Satishchandra, P., Nalini, A., Gourie-Devi, M., Khanna, N., Santosh, V., Ravi, V., Desai, A., Chandramuki, A., Jayakumar, P. N., and Shankar, S. K. (2000). "Profile of neurologic disorders associated with HIV/AIDS from Bangalore, South India (1989–1996)". Indian J. Med. Res. 11: 14–23. PubMed.
17. ^ Gray, F., Adle-Biassette, H., Chrétien, F., Lorin de la Grandmaison, G., Force, G., Keohane, C. (2001). "Neuropathology and neurodegeneration in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pathogenesis of HIV-induced lesions of the brain, correlations with HIV-associated disorders and modifications according to treatments". Clin. Neuropathol. 20 (4): 146–155. PubMed.
# ^ Wadia, R. S., Pujari, S. N., Kothari, S., Udhar, M., Kulkarni, S., Bhagat, S., and Nanivadekar, A. (2001). "Neurological manifestations of HIV disease". J. Assoc. Physicians India 49: 343–348. PubMed. 21. ^ Boshoff, C. and Weiss, R. (2002). "AIDS-related malignancies". Nat. Rev. Cancer 2 (5): 373–382. PubMed.
18. ^ Grant, I., Sacktor, H., and McArthur, J. (2005). "HIV neurocognitive disorders" (PDF). Di H. E. Gendelman, I. Grant, I. Everall, S. A. Lipton, and S. Swindells. (ed.). The Neurology of AIDS (PDF) (2nd ed.). London, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 357–373. ISBN 0-19-852610-5.
# ^ Yarchoan, R., Tosatom G. and Littlem R. F. (2005). "Therapy insight: AIDS-related malignancies — the influence of antiviral therapy on pathogenesis and management". Nat. Clin. Pract. Oncol. 2 (8): 406–415. PubMed.
19. ^ Satishchandra, P., Nalini, A., Gourie-Devi, M., Khanna, N., Santosh, V., Ravi, V., Desai, A., Chandramuki, A., Jayakumar, P. N., and Shankar, S. K. (2000). "Profile of neurologic disorders associated with HIV/AIDS from Bangalore, South India (1989–1996)". Indian J. Med. Res. 11: 14–23. PubMed.
20. # ^ WadiaBonnet, RF., SLewden, C., PujariMay, ST., Heripret, NL., KothariJougla, SE., UdharBevilacqua, MS., KulkarniCostagliola, SD., BhagatSalmon, SD., Chene, G. and NanivadekarMorlat, AP. (20012004). "NeurologicalMalignancy-related manifestationscauses of HIVdeath disease".in J.human Associmmunodeficiency virus-infected patients in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy". PhysiciansCancer India101 49(2): 343–348317–324. PubMed.
21. # ^ BoshoffSkoulidis, CF., Morgan, M. S., and WeissMacLeod, RK. M. (20022004). "AIDS-relatedPenicillium malignanciesmarneffei: a pathogen on our doorstep?". NatJ. RevR. CancerSoc. 2Med. 97 (52): 373–382394–396. PubMed.
# ^ a b c Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A. (2002). "HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries?". AIDS 16 (4): 597–632. PubMed.
22. ^ Yarchoan, R., Tosatom G. and Littlem R. F. (2005). "Therapy insight: AIDS-related malignancies — the influence of antiviral therapy on pathogenesis and management". Nat. Clin. Pract. Oncol. 2 (8): 406–415. PubMed.
23. # ^ BonnetClerici, FM., LewdenBalotta, C., MayMeroni, TL., HeripretFerrario, LE., JouglaRiva, EC., BevilacquaTrabattoni, SD., CostagliolaRidolfo, DA., SalmonVilla, DM., CheneShearer, G.M., Moroni, M. and MorlatGalli, PM. (20041996). "Malignancy-relatedType causes1 ofcytokine deathproduction inand humanlow immunodeficiencyprevalence virus-infectedof patientsviral inisolation thecorrelate erawith oflong-term highlynon activeprogression antiretroviralin therapyHIV infection". CancerAIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 10112 (211): 317–3241053–1061. PubMed.
24. # ^ SkoulidisMorgan, FD., MorganMahe, MC., S.Mayanja, B. and MacLeodWhitworth, KJ. MA. (20042002). "PenicilliumProgression marneffei:to asymptomatic pathogendisease onin ourpeople doorstep?".infected J.with R.HIV-1 Soc.in Medrural Uganda: prospective cohort study". 97BMJ 324 (27331): 394–396193–196. PubMed.
25. # ^ aGendelman, bH. cE., MorganPhelps, DW., MaheFeigenbaum, CL., MayanjaOstrove, BJ. M., OkongoAdachi, JA., Howley, P. M., LubegaKhoury, RG., Ginsberg, H. S. and WhitworthMartin, JM. A. (20021986). "HIV-1Transactivation infectionof inthe ruralhuman Africa:immunodeficiency isvirus therelong aterminal differencerepeat insequences medianby timeDNA toviruses". AIDSProc. andNatl. survivalAcad. comparedSci. withU. that in industrialized countries?"S. AIDSA. 1683 (424): 597–6329759–9763. PubMed.
# ^ Bentwich, Z., Kalinkovich., A. and Weisman, Z. (1995). "Immune activation is a dominant factor in the pathogenesis of African AIDS.". Immunol. Today 16 (4): 187–191. PubMed.
26. ^ Clerici, M., Balotta, C., Meroni, L., Ferrario, E., Riva, C., Trabattoni, D., Ridolfo, A., Villa, M., Shearer, G.M., Moroni, M. and Galli, M. (1996). "Type 1 cytokine production and low prevalence of viral isolation correlate with long-term non progression in HIV infection". AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 12 (11): 1053–1061. PubMed.
# ^ Contohnya adalah orang dengan mutasi CCR5-Δ32 (delesi 32 nukleotida pada gen penyandi reseptor chemokine CCR5 yang memengaruhi fungsi sel T) yang kebal terhadap beberapa galur HIV.Tang, J. and Kaslow, R. A. (2003). "The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy". AIDS 17 (Suppl 4): S51–S60. PubMed.
27. ^ Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B. and Whitworth, J. A. (2002). "Progression to symptomatic disease in people infected with HIV-1 in rural Uganda: prospective cohort study". BMJ 324 (7331): 193–196. PubMed.
28. # ^ GendelmanQuiñones-Mateu, HM. E., PhelpsMas, WA., Feigenbaum,Lain L.,de OstroveLera, J. MT., AdachiSoriano, AV., HowleyAlcami, P. MJ., KhouryLederman, GM., Ginsberg, H. SM. and MartinDomingo, M. AE. (19861998). "TransactivationLTR ofand thetat humanvariability immunodeficiencyof virusHIV-1 longisolates terminalfrom repeatpatients sequenceswith bydivergent DNArates viruses".of Proc.disease Natlprogression". Acad.Virus Sci. U. S. A.Research 8357 (241): 9759–976311–20. PubMed.
# ^ Campbell, G. R., Pasquier, E., Watkins, J., Bourgarel-Rey, V., Peyrot, V., Esquieu, D., Barbier, P., de Mareuil, J., Braguer, D., Kaleebu, P., Yirrell, D. L. and Loret E. P. (2004). "The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis". J. Biol. Chem. 279 (46): 48197–48204. PubMed.
29. ^ Bentwich, Z., Kalinkovich., A. and Weisman, Z. (1995). "Immune activation is a dominant factor in the pathogenesis of African AIDS.". Immunol. Today 16 (4): 187–191. PubMed.
30. # ^ ContohnyaKaleebu adalahP, orangFrench denganN, mutasiMahe CCR5-Δ32C, (delesiYirrell 32D, nukleotidaWatera padaC, genLyagoba penyandiF, reseptorNakiyingi chemokineJ, CCR5Rutebemberwa yangA, memengaruhiMorgan fungsiD, selWeber T) yang kebal terhadap beberapa galur HIV.TangJ, J.Gilks and KaslowC, R.Whitworth AJ. (20032002). "The impactEffect of hosthuman geneticsimmunodeficiency onvirus (HIV) infectiontype 1 envelope subtypes A and D on disease progression in thea large eracohort of highlyHIV-1-positive activepersons antiretroviralin therapyUganda". AIDSJ. 17Infect. (SupplDis. 4185 (9): S51–S601244–1250. PubMed.
31. # ^ Quiñones-MateuRothenberg, MR. EB., MasScarlett, AM., Laindel de LeraRio, TC., SorianoReznik, VD., AlcamiO'Daniels, J., Lederman, M. M. and Domingo, EC. (1998). "LTROral and tat variabilitytransmission of HIV-1 isolates from patients with divergent rates of disease progression". Virus ResearchAIDS 5712 (116): 11–202095–2105. PubMed.
# ^ Koenig, Michael et al. (2004). "Coerced first intercourse and reproductive health among adolescent women in Rakai, Uganda". International Family Planning Perspectives 30 (4:156): 156.
32. ^ Campbell, G. R., Pasquier, E., Watkins, J., Bourgarel-Rey, V., Peyrot, V., Esquieu, D., Barbier, P., de Mareuil, J., Braguer, D., Kaleebu, P., Yirrell, D. L. and Loret E. P. (2004). "The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis". J. Biol. Chem. 279 (46): 48197–48204. PubMed.
# ^ a b Laga, M., Nzila, N., Goeman, J. (1991). "The interrelationship of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection: implications for the control of both epidemics in Africa". AIDS 5 (Suppl 1): S55–S63. PubMed.
33. ^ Kaleebu P, French N, Mahe C, Yirrell D, Watera C, Lyagoba F, Nakiyingi J, Rutebemberwa A, Morgan D, Weber J, Gilks C, Whitworth J. (2002). "Effect of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 envelope subtypes A and D on disease progression in a large cohort of HIV-1-positive persons in Uganda". J. Infect. Dis. 185 (9): 1244–1250. PubMed.
34. # ^ RothenbergTovanabutra, RS., Robison, BV., ScarlettWongtrakul, MJ., delSennum, RioS., CSuriyanon, V., ReznikKingkeow, D., O'DanielsKawichai, CS., Tanan, P., Duerr, A., Nelson, K. E. (19982002). "OralMale viral load and heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 subtype E in northern Thailand". AIDSJ. Acquir. Immune. Defic. Syndr. 1229 (163): 2095–2105275–283. PubMed.
# ^ Sagar, M., Lavreys, L., Baeten, J. M., Richardson, B. A., Mandaliya, K., Ndinya-Achola, J. O., Kreiss, J. K., Overbaugh, J. (2004). "Identification of modifiable factors that affect the genetic diversity of the transmitted HIV-1 population". AIDS 18 (4): 615–619. PubMed.
35. ^ Koenig, Michael et al. (2004). "Coerced first intercourse and reproductive health among adolescent women in Rakai, Uganda". International Family Planning Perspectives 30 (4:156): 156.
36. # ^ aLavreys, bL., LagaBaeten, J. M., NzilaMartin, NH. L. Jr., GoemanOverbaugh, J., (1991)Mandaliya, K., "TheNdinya-Achola, interrelationshipJ., ofand sexuallyKreiss, transmittedJ. diseasesK. and(2004). HIV"Hormonal infection:contraception implicationsand forrisk theof controlHIV-1 acquisition: results of botha epidemics10-year inprospective Africastudy". AIDS 518 (Suppl 14): S55–S63695–697. PubMed.
# ^ a b Fan, H. (2005). Fan, H., Conner, R. F. and Villarreal, L. P. eds, ed. AIDS: science and society (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 0-7637-0086-X.
37. ^ Tovanabutra, S., Robison, V., Wongtrakul, J., Sennum, S., Suriyanon, V., Kingkeow, D., Kawichai, S., Tanan, P., Duerr, A., Nelson, K. E. (2002). "Male viral load and heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 subtype E in northern Thailand". J. Acquir. Immune. Defic. Syndr. 29 (3): 275–283. PubMed.
# ^ WHO (2003-03-17). "WHO, UNAIDS Reaffirm HIV as a Sexually Transmitted Disease". Diakses tanggal 2006-01-17.
38. ^ Sagar, M., Lavreys, L., Baeten, J. M., Richardson, B. A., Mandaliya, K., Ndinya-Achola, J. O., Kreiss, J. K., Overbaugh, J. (2004). "Identification of modifiable factors that affect the genetic diversity of the transmitted HIV-1 population". AIDS 18 (4): 615–619. PubMed.
# ^ Physicians for Human Rights (2003-03-13). "HIV Transmission in the Medical Setting: A White Paper by Physicians for Human Rights". Partners in Health. Diakses tanggal 2006-03-01.
39. ^ Lavreys, L., Baeten, J. M., Martin, H. L. Jr., Overbaugh, J., Mandaliya, K., Ndinya-Achola, J., and Kreiss, J. K. (2004). "Hormonal contraception and risk of HIV-1 acquisition: results of a 10-year prospective study". AIDS 18 (4): 695–697. PubMed.
# ^ WHO (2001). "Blood safety....for too few". Diakses tanggal 2006-01-17.
40. ^ a b Fan, H. (2005). Fan, H., Conner, R. F. and Villarreal, L. P. eds, ed. AIDS: science and society (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 0-7637-0086-X.
# ^ a b Coovadia, H. (2004). "Antiretroviral agents—how best to protect infants from HIV and save their mothers from AIDS". N. Engl. J. Med. 351 (3): 289–292. PubMed.
41. ^ WHO (2003-03-17). "WHO, UNAIDS Reaffirm HIV as a Sexually Transmitted Disease". Diakses tanggal 2006-01-17.
# ^ Coovadia HM, Bland RM (2007). "Preserving breastfeeding practice through the HIV pandemic". Trop. Med. Int. Health. 12 (9): 1116–1133. PMID 17714431.
42. ^ Physicians for Human Rights (2003-03-13). "HIV Transmission in the Medical Setting: A White Paper by Physicians for Human Rights". Partners in Health. Diakses tanggal 2006-03-01.
# ^ World Health Organization (1990). "Interim proposal for a WHO staging system for HIV infection and disease". WHO Wkly Epidem. Rec. 65 (29): 221–228. PubMed.
43. ^ WHO (2001). "Blood safety....for too few". Diakses tanggal 2006-01-17.
# ^ Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (1982). "Persistent, generalized lymphadenopathy among homosexual males.". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 31 (19): 249–251. PubMed.
44. ^ a b Coovadia, H. (2004). "Antiretroviral agents—how best to protect infants from HIV and save their mothers from AIDS". N. Engl. J. Med. 351 (3): 289–292. PubMed.
# ^ Barré-Sinoussi, F., Chermann, J. C., Rey, F., Nugeyre, M. T., Chamaret, S., Gruest, J., Dauguet, C., Axler-Blin, C., Vezinet-Brun, F., Rouzioux, C., Rozenbaum, W. and Montagnier, L. (1983). "Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)". Science 220 (4599): 868–871. PubMed.
45. ^ Coovadia HM, Bland RM (2007). "Preserving breastfeeding practice through the HIV pandemic". Trop. Med. Int. Health. 12 (9): 1116–1133. PMID 17714431.
# ^ Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (1982). "Update on acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)—United States.". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 31 (37): 507–508; 513–514. PubMed. 50. ^ CDC (1992). "1993 Revised Classification System for HIV Infection and Expanded Surveillance Case Definition for AIDS Among Adolescents and Adults". CDC. Diakses tanggal 2006-02-09.
46. ^ World Health Organization (1990). "Interim proposal for a WHO staging system for HIV infection and disease". WHO Wkly Epidem. Rec. 65 (29): 221–228. PubMed.
# ^ a b Kumaranayake, L. and Watts, C. (2001). "Resource allocation and priority setting of HIV/AIDS interventions: addressing the generalized epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa". J. Int. Dev. 13 (4): 451–466. doi:10.1002/jid.798.
47. ^ Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (1982). "Persistent, generalized lymphadenopathy among homosexual males.". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 31 (19): 249–251. PubMed.
# ^ Satwika Rumeksa (17 Pebruari 2015). "HIV Agresif Ditemukan di Kuba".
48. ^ Barré-Sinoussi, F., Chermann, J. C., Rey, F., Nugeyre, M. T., Chamaret, S., Gruest, J., Dauguet, C., Axler-Blin, C., Vezinet-Brun, F., Rouzioux, C., Rozenbaum, W. and Montagnier, L. (1983). "Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)". Science 220 (4599): 868–871. PubMed.
# ^ Satwika Rumeksa (17 Pebruari 2015). "HIV Agresif Ditemukan di Kuba".
49. ^ Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (1982). "Update on acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)—United States.". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 31 (37): 507–508; 513–514. PubMed.
# ^ Smith, D. K., Grohskopf, L. A., Black, R. J., Auerbach, J. D., Veronese, F., Struble, K. A., Cheever, L., Johnson, M., Paxton, L. A., Onorato, I. A., Greenberg, A. E. (2005). "Antiretroviral Postexposure Prophylaxis After Sexual, Injection-Drug Use, or Other Nonoccupational Exposure to HIV in the United States". MMWR 54 (RR02): 1–20.
50. ^ CDC (1992). "1993 Revised Classification System for HIV Infection and Expanded Surveillance Case Definition for AIDS Among Adolescents and Adults". CDC. Diakses tanggal 2006-02-09.
# ^ Donegan, E., Stuart, M., Niland, J. C., Sacks, H. S., Azen, S. P., Dietrich, S. L., Faucett, C., Fletcher, M. A., Kleinman, S. H., Operskalski, E. A. et al. (1990). "Infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) among recipients of antibody-positive blood donations". Ann. Intern. Med. 113 (10): 733–739. PubMed.
51. ^ a b Kumaranayake, L. and Watts, C. (2001). "Resource allocation and priority setting of HIV/AIDS interventions: addressing the generalized epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa". J. Int. Dev. 13 (4): 451–466. doi:10.1002/jid.798.
# ^ Kaplan, E. H. and Heimer, R. (1995). "HIV incidence among New Haven needle exchange participants: updated estimates from syringe tracking and testing data". J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 10 (2): 175–176. PubMed.
52. ^ Satwika Rumeksa (17 Pebruari 2015). "HIV Agresif Ditemukan di Kuba".
# ^ a b c d European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV (1992). "Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples". BMJ. 304 (6830): 809–813. PubMed.
53. ^ Satwika Rumeksa (17 Pebruari 2015). "HIV Agresif Ditemukan di Kuba".
# ^ a b c d e f Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. (2002). "Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use". Sex. Transm. Dis. 29 (1): 38–43. PubMed.
54. ^ Smith, D. K., Grohskopf, L. A., Black, R. J., Auerbach, J. D., Veronese, F., Struble, K. A., Cheever, L., Johnson, M., Paxton, L. A., Onorato, I. A., Greenberg, A. E. (2005). "Antiretroviral Postexposure Prophylaxis After Sexual, Injection-Drug Use, or Other Nonoccupational Exposure to HIV in the United States". MMWR 54 (RR02): 1–20.
55. # ^ DoneganBell, ED., Stuart, M., Niland, J. C., Sacks, H. S., Azen, S. P., Dietrich, S. L., Faucett, C., Fletcher, M. A., Kleinman, S. H., Operskalski, E. A. et al. (19901997). "InfectionOccupational withrisk of human immunodeficiency virus typeinfection 1in (HIV-1)healthcare amongworkers: recipientsan of antibody-positive blood donationsoverview.". AnnAm. InternJ. Med. 113102 (105B): 733–7399–15. PubMed.
# ^ Leynaert, B., Downs, A. M. and de Vincenzi, I. (1998). "Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus: variability of infectivity throughout the course of infection. European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV". Am. J. Epidemiol. 148 (1): 88–96. PubMed.
56. ^ Kaplan, E. H. and Heimer, R. (1995). "HIV incidence among New Haven needle exchange participants: updated estimates from syringe tracking and testing data". J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 10 (2): 175–176. PubMed.
# ^ "Facts about AIDS & HIV". Diakses tanggal 2006-12-14.
57. ^ a b c d European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV (1992). "Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples". BMJ. 304 (6830): 809–813. PubMed.
# ^ Johnson AM & Laga M, Heterosexual transmission of HIV, AIDS, 1988, 2(suppl. 1):S49-S56; N'Galy B & Ryder RW, Epidemiology of HIV infection in Africa, Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 1988, 1(6):551-558; dan Deschamps M et al., Heterosexual transmission of HIV in Haiti, Annals of Internal Medicine, 1996, 125(4):324-330.
58. ^ a b c d e f Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. (2002). "Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use". Sex. Transm. Dis. 29 (1): 38–43. PubMed.
59. # ^ BellCayley, DW. ME. Jr. (19972004). "Occupational riskEffectiveness of humancondoms immunodeficiencyin virusreducing infectionheterosexual intransmission healthcareof workers: an overview.HIV". Am. JFam. Med.Physician 10270 (5B7): 9–151268–1269. PubMed.
# ^ Durex. "Module 5/Guidelines for Educators" (Microsoft Word). Diakses tanggal 2006-04-17.
60. ^ Leynaert, B., Downs, A. M. and de Vincenzi, I. (1998). "Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus: variability of infectivity throughout the course of infection. European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV". Am. J. Epidemiol. 148 (1): 88–96. PubMed.
# ^ PATH (2006). "The female condom: significant potential for STI and pregnancy prevention". Outlook 22 (2).
61. ^ "Facts about AIDS & HIV". Diakses tanggal 2006-12-14.
# ^ WHO (August, 2003). "Condom Facts and Figures". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2005-10-30. Diakses tanggal 2006-01-17.
62. ^ Johnson AM & Laga M, Heterosexual transmission of HIV, AIDS, 1988, 2(suppl. 1):S49-S56; N'Galy B & Ryder RW, Epidemiology of HIV infection in Africa, Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 1988, 1(6):551-558; dan Deschamps M et al., Heterosexual transmission of HIV in Haiti, Annals of Internal Medicine, 1996, 125(4):324-330.
# ^ Dias, S. F., Matos, M. G. and Goncalves, A. C. (2005). "Preventing HIV transmission in adolescents: an analysis of the Portuguese data from the Health Behaviour School-aged Children study and focus groups". Eur. J. Public Health 15 (3): 300–304. PubMed.
63. ^ Cayley, W. E. Jr. (2004). "Effectiveness of condoms in reducing heterosexual transmission of HIV". Am. Fam. Physician 70 (7): 1268–1269. PubMed.
# ^ NIAID (2006-12-13). "Adult Male Circumcision Significantly Reduces Risk of Acquiring HIV: Trials Kenya and Uganda Stopped Early". Diakses tanggal 2006-12-15.
64. ^ Durex. "Module 5/Guidelines for Educators" (Microsoft Word). Diakses tanggal 2006-04-17.
# ^ Pendekatan ABC oleh Pemerintah Amerika Serikat: Abstinence or delay of sexual activity, especially for youth (berpantang atau menunda kegiatan seksual, terutama bagi remaja), Being faithful, especially for those in committed relationships (setia pada pasangan, terutama bagi orang yang sudah memiliki pasangan), mCondom use, for those who engage in risky behavior (penggunaan kondom, bagi orang yang melakukan perilaku berisiko).
65. ^ PATH (2006). "The female condom: significant potential for STI and pregnancy prevention". Outlook 22 (2).
# ^ "Yayasan Bhakti Gelar Orasi Panggung", Bali Post, 02-12-2003
66. ^ WHO (August, 2003). "Condom Facts and Figures". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2005-10-30. Diakses tanggal 2006-01-17.
# ^ Sperling, R. S., Shapirom D. E., Coombsm R. W., Todd, J. A., Herman, S. A., McSherry, G. D., O'Sullivan, M. J., Van Dyke, R. B., Jimenez, E., Rouzioux, C., Flynn, P. M., Sullivan, J. L. (1996). "Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant". N. Engl. J. Med. 335 (22): 1621–1629. PubMed.
67. ^ Dias, S. F., Matos, M. G. and Goncalves, A. C. (2005). "Preventing HIV transmission in adolescents: an analysis of the Portuguese data from the Health Behaviour School-aged Children study and focus groups". Eur. J. Public Health 15 (3): 300–304. PubMed.
68. # ^ NIAIDBerry, S. (2006-1206-1308). "AdultChildren, MaleHIV Circumcisionand SignificantlyAIDS". Reducesavert.org. RiskDiakses oftanggal Acquiring2006-06-15. HIV:73. ^ Trialsa Kenyab Department of Health and UgandaHuman StoppedServices (February, 2006). Early"A Pocket Guide to Adult HIV/AIDS Treatment February 2006 edition". Diakses tanggal 2006-1209-1501.
# ^ Department of Health and Human Services (February, 2006). "A Pocket Guide to Adult HIV/AIDS Treatment February 2006 edition". Diakses tanggal 2006-09-01.
69. ^ Pendekatan ABC oleh Pemerintah Amerika Serikat:
# ^ Department of Health and Human Services Working Group on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children (3 November, 2005). "Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Pediatric HIV Infection" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2006-01-17.
Abstinence or delay of sexual activity, especially for youth (berpantang atau menunda kegiatan seksual, terutama bagi remaja),
# ^ Department of Health and Human Services Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection (October 6, 2005). "Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in HIV-1-Infected Adults and Adolescents" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2006-01-17.
Being faithful, especially for those in committed relationships (setia pada pasangan, terutama bagi orang yang sudah memiliki pasangan),
# ^ Martinez-Picado, J., DePasquale, M. P., Kartsonis, N., Hanna, G. J., Wong, J., Finzi, D., Rosenberg, E., Gunthard, H. F., Sutton, L., Savara, A., Petropoulos, C. J., Hellmann, N., Walker, B. D., Richman, D. D., Siliciano, R. and D'Aquila, R. T. (2000). "Antiretroviral resistance during successful therapy of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 97 (20): 10948–10953. PubMed.
Condom use, for those who engage in risky behavior (penggunaan kondom, bagi orang yang melakukan perilaku berisiko).
# ^ Dybul, M., Fauci, A. S., Bartlett, J. G., Kaplan, J. E., Pau, A. K.; Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV. (2002). "Guidelines for using antiretroviral agents among HIV-infected adults and adolescents". Ann. Intern. Med. 137 (5 Pt 2): 381–433. PubMed.
70. ^ "Yayasan Bhakti Gelar Orasi Panggung", Bali Post, 02-12-2003
# ^ Blankson, J. N., Persaud, D., Siliciano, R. F. (2002). "The challenge of viral reservoirs in HIV-1 infection". Annu. Rev. Med. 53: 557–593. PubMed.
71. ^ Sperling, R. S., Shapirom D. E., Coombsm R. W., Todd, J. A., Herman, S. A., McSherry, G. D., O'Sullivan, M. J., Van Dyke, R. B., Jimenez, E., Rouzioux, C., Flynn, P. M., Sullivan, J. L. (1996). "Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant". N. Engl. J. Med. 335 (22): 1621–1629. PubMed.
# ^ Palella, F. J., Delaney, K. M., Moorman, A. C., Loveless, M. O., Fuhrer, J., Satten, G. A., Aschman, D. J. and Holmberg, S. D. (1998). "Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection". N. Engl. J. Med. 338 (13): 853–860. PubMed.
72. ^ Berry, S. (2006-06-08). "Children, HIV and AIDS". avert.org. Diakses tanggal 2006-06-15.
# ^ Wood, E., Hogg, R. S., Yip, B., Harrigan, P. R., O'Shaughnessy, M. V. and Montaner, J. S. (2003). "Is there a baseline CD4 cell count that precludes a survival response to modern antiretroviral therapy?". AIDS 17 (5): 711–720. PubMed.
73. ^ a b Department of Health and Human Services (February, 2006). "A Pocket Guide to Adult HIV/AIDS Treatment February 2006 edition". Diakses tanggal 2006-09-01.
# ^ Chene, G., Sterne, J. A., May, M., Costagliola, D., Ledergerber, B., Phillips, A. N., Dabis, F., Lundgren, J., D'Arminio Monforte, A., de Wolf, F., Hogg, R., Reiss, P., Justice, A., Leport, C., Staszewski, S., Gill, J., Fatkenheuer, G., Egger, M. E. and the Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration. (2003). "Prognostic importance of initial response in HIV-1 infected patients starting potent antiretroviral therapy: analysis of prospective studies". Lancet 362 (9385): 679–686. PubMed.
74. ^ Department of Health and Human Services (February, 2006). "A Pocket Guide to Adult HIV/AIDS Treatment February 2006 edition". Diakses tanggal 2006-09-01.
# ^ King, J. T., Justice, A. C., Roberts, M. S., Chang, C. H., Fusco, J. S. and the CHORUS Program Team. (2003). "Long-Term HIV/AIDS Survival Estimation in the Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy Era". Medical Decision Making 23 (1): 9–20. PubMed.
75. ^ Department of Health and Human Services Working Group on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children (3 November, 2005). "Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Pediatric HIV Infection" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2006-01-17.
# ^ Tassie, J.M., Grabar, S., Lancar, R., Deloumeaux, J., Bentata, M., Costagliola, D. and the Clinical Epidemiology Group from the French Hospital Database on HIV. (2002). "Time to AIDS from 1992 to 1999 in HIV-1-infected subjects with known date of infection". Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes 30 (1): 81–7. PubMed.
76. ^ Department of Health and Human Services Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection (October 6, 2005). "Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in HIV-1-Infected Adults and Adolescents" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2006-01-17.
# ^ Becker SL, Dezii CM, Burtcel B, Kawabata H, Hodder S. (2002). "Young HIV-infected adults are at greater risk for medication nonadherence". MedGenMed. 4 (3): 21. PubMed.
77. ^ Martinez-Picado, J., DePasquale, M. P., Kartsonis, N., Hanna, G. J., Wong, J., Finzi, D., Rosenberg, E., Gunthard, H. F., Sutton, L., Savara, A., Petropoulos, C. J., Hellmann, N., Walker, B. D., Richman, D. D., Siliciano, R. and D'Aquila, R. T. (2000). "Antiretroviral resistance during successful therapy of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 97 (20): 10948–10953. PubMed.
# ^ Nieuwkerk, P., Sprangers, M., Burger, D., Hoetelmans, R. M., Hugen, P. W., Danner, S. A., van Der Ende, M. E., Schneider, M. M., Schrey, G., Meenhorst, P. L., Sprenger, H. G., Kauffmann, R. H., Jambroes, M., Chesney, M. A., de Wolf, F., Lange, J. M. and the ATHENA Project. (2001). "Limited Patient Adherence to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy for HIV-1 Infection in an Observational Cohort Study". Arch. Intern. Med. 161 (16): 1962–1968. PubMed.
78. ^ Dybul, M., Fauci, A. S., Bartlett, J. G., Kaplan, J. E., Pau, A. K.; Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV. (2002). "Guidelines for using antiretroviral agents among HIV-infected adults and adolescents". Ann. Intern. Med. 137 (5 Pt 2): 381–433. PubMed.
79. # ^ BlanksonKleeberger, JC., NPhair, J., PersaudStrathdee, DS., SilicianoDetels, R., Kingsley, L. and Jacobson, L. FP. (20022001). "The challengeDeterminants of viralHeterogeneous reservoirsAdherence into HIV-1Antiretroviral Therapies in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort infectionStudy". AnnuJ. RevAcquir. MedImmune Defic. 53Syndr. 26 (1): 557–59382–92. PubMed.
80. # ^ Palella, F. J., DelaneyHeath, K. MV., MoormanSinger, A. CJ., LovelessO'Shaughnessy, M. OV., FuhrerMontaner, J., Satten, GS. A.,and AschmanHogg, DR. J. and Holmberg, S. D. (19982002). "DecliningIntentional morbidityNonadherence and mortality amongDue patientsto withAdverse advancedSymptoms humanAssociated immunodeficiencyWith virusAntiretroviral infectionTherapy". NJ. EnglAcquir. JImmune Defic. MedSyndr. 33831 (132): 853–860211–217. PubMed.
81. # ^ WoodMontessori, EV., HoggPress, R. SN., YipHarris, BM., HarriganAkagi, P. RL., O'Shaughnessy, M. V. and Montaner, J. S. (20032004). "IsAdverse thereeffects aof baselineantiretroviral CD4therapy cellfor countHIV that precludes a survival response to modern antiretroviral therapy?infection.". AIDSCMAJ 17170 (52): 711–720229–238. PubMed.
# ^ Saitoh, A., Hull, A. D., Franklin, P. and Spector, S. A. (2005). "Myelomeningocele in an infant with intrauterine exposure to efavirenz". J. Perinatol. 25 (8): 555–556. PubMed.
82. ^ Chene, G., Sterne, J. A., May, M., Costagliola, D., Ledergerber, B., Phillips, A. N., Dabis, F., Lundgren, J., D'Arminio Monforte, A., de Wolf, F., Hogg, R., Reiss, P., Justice, A., Leport, C., Staszewski, S., Gill, J., Fatkenheuer, G., Egger, M. E. and the Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration. (2003). "Prognostic importance of initial response in HIV-1 infected patients starting potent antiretroviral therapy: analysis of prospective studies". Lancet 362 (9385): 679–686. PubMed.
# ^ a b c Ferrantelli F, Cafaro A, Ensoli B. (2004). "Nonstructural HIV proteins as targets for prophylactic or therapeutic vaccines". Curr Opin Biotechnol. 15 (6): 543–556. PubMed.
83. ^ King, J. T., Justice, A. C., Roberts, M. S., Chang, C. H., Fusco, J. S. and the CHORUS Program Team. (2003). "Long-Term HIV/AIDS Survival Estimation in the Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy Era". Medical Decision Making 23 (1): 9–20. PubMed.
# ^ Laurence J. (2006). "Hepatitis A and B virus immunization in HIV-infected persons". AIDS Reader 16 (1): 15–17. PubMed.
84. ^ Tassie, J.M., Grabar, S., Lancar, R., Deloumeaux, J., Bentata, M., Costagliola, D. and the Clinical Epidemiology Group from the French Hospital Database on HIV. (2002). "Time to AIDS from 1992 to 1999 in HIV-1-infected subjects with known date of infection". Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes 30 (1): 81–7. PubMed.
# ^ Susu Sapi Bisa Obatin HIV
85. ^ Becker SL, Dezii CM, Burtcel B, Kawabata H, Hodder S. (2002). "Young HIV-infected adults are at greater risk for medication nonadherence". MedGenMed. 4 (3): 21. PubMed.
# ^ Saltmarsh, S. (2005). "Voodoo or valid? Alternative therapies benefit those living with HIV". Positively Aware 3 (16): 46. PubMed.
86. ^ Nieuwkerk, P., Sprangers, M., Burger, D., Hoetelmans, R. M., Hugen, P. W., Danner, S. A., van Der Ende, M. E., Schneider, M. M., Schrey, G., Meenhorst, P. L., Sprenger, H. G., Kauffmann, R. H., Jambroes, M., Chesney, M. A., de Wolf, F., Lange, J. M. and the ATHENA Project. (2001). "Limited Patient Adherence to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy for HIV-1 Infection in an Observational Cohort Study". Arch. Intern. Med. 161 (16): 1962–1968. PubMed.
# ^ Nicholas PK, Kemppainen JK, Canaval GE et al. (February 2007). "Symptom management and self-care for peripheral neuropathy in HIV/AIDS". AIDS Care 19 (2): 179–89. doi:10.1080/09540120600971083. PMID 17364396. Diakses tanggal 2008-04-28. Text "1B69BA326FFE69C3F0A8F227DF8201D0 " ignored (bantuan);
87. ^ Kleeberger, C., Phair, J., Strathdee, S., Detels, R., Kingsley, L. and Jacobson, L. P. (2001). "Determinants of Heterogeneous Adherence to HIV-Antiretroviral Therapies in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study". J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 26 (1): 82–92. PubMed.
# ^ Liu JP, Manheimer E, Yang M (2005). "Herbal medicines for treating HIV infection and AIDS". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD003937. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003937.pub2. PMID 16034917.
88. ^ Heath, K. V., Singer, J., O'Shaughnessy, M. V., Montaner, J. S. and Hogg, R. S. (2002). "Intentional Nonadherence Due to Adverse Symptoms Associated With Antiretroviral Therapy". J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 31 (2): 211–217. PubMed.
# ^ a b Irlam JH, Visser ME, Rollins N, Siegfried N (2005). "Micronutrient supplementation in children and adults with HIV infection". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD003650. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003650.pub2. PMID 16235333.
89. ^ Montessori, V., Press, N., Harris, M., Akagi, L., Montaner, J. S. (2004). "Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection.". CMAJ 170 (2): 229–238. PubMed.
# ^ Hurwitz BE, Klaus JR, Llabre MM et al. (January 2007). "Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 viral load with selenium supplementation: a randomized controlled trial". Arch. Intern. Med. 167 (2): 148–54. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.2.148. PMID 17242315.
90. ^ Saitoh, A., Hull, A. D., Franklin, P. and Spector, S. A. (2005). "Myelomeningocele in an infant with intrauterine exposure to efavirenz". J. Perinatol. 25 (8): 555–556. PubMed.
# ^ Power R, Gore-Felton C, Vosvick M, Israelski DM, Spiegel D (June 2002). "HIV: effectiveness of complementary and alternative medicine". Prim. Care 29 (2): 361–78. PMID 12391716.
91. ^ a b c Ferrantelli F, Cafaro A, Ensoli B. (2004). "Nonstructural HIV proteins as targets for prophylactic or therapeutic vaccines". Curr Opin Biotechnol. 15 (6): 543–556. PubMed.
# ^ (Inggris)"Hypothyroxinemia in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).". Department of Radiation Medicine, University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital; Ezeala CC, Chukwurah E. Diakses tanggal 2010-07-18.
92. ^ Laurence J. (2006). "Hepatitis A and B virus immunization in HIV-infected persons". AIDS Reader 16 (1): 15–17. PubMed.
# ^ (Inggris)"Hyperthyroidism stimulates mitochondrial proton leak and ATP turnover in rat hepatocytes but does not change the overall kinetics of substrate oxidation reactions". Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge; Harper ME, Brand MD. Diakses tanggal 2010-07-18.
93. ^ Susu Sapi Bisa Obatin HIV
# ^ (Inggris)"Chemiosmotic Gradient: Generation and Maintenance". Department of Biochemistry & Cell Biology; Rice University. Diakses tanggal 2010-07-18.
94. ^ Saltmarsh, S. (2005). "Voodoo or valid? Alternative therapies benefit those living with HIV". Positively Aware 3 (16): 46. PubMed.
# ^ UNAIDS (2006). "Annex 2: HIV/AIDS estimates and data, 2005" (PDF). 2006 Report on the global AIDS epidemic (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2006-06-08.
95. ^ Nicholas PK, Kemppainen JK, Canaval GE et al. (February 2007). "Symptom management and self-care for peripheral neuropathy in HIV/AIDS". AIDS Care 19 (2): 179–89. doi:10.1080/09540120600971083. PMID 17364396. Diakses tanggal 2008-04-28. Text "1B69BA326FFE69C3F0A8F227DF8201D0 " ignored (bantuan);
# ^ UNAIDS (2001). "Special Session of the General Assembly on HIV/AIDS Round table 3 Socio-economic impact of the epidemic and the strengthening of national capacities to combat HIV/AIDS" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2006-06-15.
96. ^ Liu JP, Manheimer E, Yang M (2005). "Herbal medicines for treating HIV infection and AIDS". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD003937. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003937.pub2. PMID 16034917.
# ^ CDC (1981). "Pneumocystis Pneumonia — Los Angeles". CDC. Diakses tanggal 2006-01-17.
97. ^ a b Irlam JH, Visser ME, Rollins N, Siegfried N (2005). "Micronutrient supplementation in children and adults with HIV infection". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD003650. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003650.pub2. PMID 16235333.
# ^ Reeves, J. D. and Doms, R. W (2002). "Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2". J. Gen. Virol. 83 (Pt 6): 1253–1265. PubMed.
98. ^ Hurwitz BE, Klaus JR, Llabre MM et al. (January 2007). "Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 viral load with selenium supplementation: a randomized controlled trial". Arch. Intern. Med. 167 (2): 148–54. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.2.148. PMID 17242315.
# ^ Keele, B. F., van Heuverswyn, F., Li, Y. Y., Bailes, E., Takehisa, J., Santiago, M. L., Bibollet-Ruche, F., Chen, Y., Wain, L. V., Liegois, F., Loul, S., Mpoudi Ngole, E., Bienvenue, Y., Delaporte, E., Brookfield, J. F. Y., Sharp, P. M., Shaw, G. M., Peeters, M., Hahn, B. H. (2006). "Chimpanzee Reservoirs of Pandemic and Nonpandemic HIV-1". Science. Online 2006-05-25. PubMeddoi:10.1126/science.1126531.
99. ^ Power R, Gore-Felton C, Vosvick M, Israelski DM, Spiegel D (June 2002). "HIV: effectiveness of complementary and alternative medicine". Prim. Care 29 (2): 361–78. PMID 12391716.
# ^ Cohen, J. (2000). "Vaccine Theory of AIDS Origins Disputed at Royal Society". Science 289 (5486): 1850–1851. PubMed.
100. ^ (Inggris)"Hypothyroxinemia in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).". Department of Radiation Medicine, University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital; Ezeala CC, Chukwurah E. Diakses tanggal 2010-07-18.
# ^ Curtis, T. (1992). "The origin of AIDS". Rolling Stone (626): 54–59, 61, 106, 108.
101. ^ (Inggris)"Hyperthyroidism stimulates mitochondrial proton leak and ATP turnover in rat hepatocytes but does not change the overall kinetics of substrate oxidation reactions". Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge; Harper ME, Brand MD. Diakses tanggal 2010-07-18.
# ^ Hooper, E. (1999). The River : A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS (1st ed.). Boston, MA: Little Brown & Co. pp. 1–1070. ISBN 0-316-37261-7.
102. ^ (Inggris)"Chemiosmotic Gradient: Generation and Maintenance". Department of Biochemistry & Cell Biology; Rice University. Diakses tanggal 2010-07-18.
# ^ Worobey M, Santiago ML, Keele BF, Ndjango JB, Joy JB, Labama BL, Dhed'A BD, Rambaut A, Sharp PM, Shaw GM, Hahn BH (2004). "Origin of AIDS: contaminated polio vaccine theory refuted". Nature 428 (6985): 820. PubMed.
103. ^ UNAIDS (2006). "Annex 2: HIV/AIDS estimates and data, 2005" (PDF). 2006 Report on the global AIDS epidemic (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2006-06-08.
# ^ Berry N, Jenkins A, Martin J, Davis C, Wood D, Schild G, Bottiger M, Holmes H, Minor P, Almond N (2005). "Mitochondrial DNA and retroviral RNA analyses of archival oral polio vaccine (OPV CHAT) materials: evidence of macaque nuclear sequences confirms substrate identity". Vaccine 23: 1639–1648. PubMed.
104. ^ UNAIDS (2001). "Special Session of the General Assembly on HIV/AIDS Round table 3 Socio-economic impact of the epidemic and the strengthening of national capacities to combat HIV/AIDS" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2006-06-15.
105. # ^ CDCCenters for Disease Control and Prevention (19812004-03-23). "PneumocystisOral PneumoniaPolio Vaccine Losand Angeles".HIV CDC/ AIDS: Questions and Answers". Diakses tanggal 2006-0111-1720.
# ^ UNAIDS (2006). "The impact of AIDS on people and societies" (PDF). 2006 Report on the global AIDS epidemic (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2006-06-14.
106. ^ Reeves, J. D. and Doms, R. W (2002). "Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2". J. Gen. Virol. 83 (Pt 6): 1253–1265. PubMed.
# ^ Ogden, J. and Nyblade, L. (2005). "Common at its core: HIV-related stigma across contexts" (PDF). International Center for Research on Women. Diakses tanggal 2007-02-15.
107. ^ Keele, B. F., van Heuverswyn, F., Li, Y. Y., Bailes, E., Takehisa, J., Santiago, M. L., Bibollet-Ruche, F., Chen, Y., Wain, L. V., Liegois, F., Loul, S., Mpoudi Ngole, E., Bienvenue, Y., Delaporte, E., Brookfield, J. F. Y., Sharp, P. M., Shaw, G. M., Peeters, M., Hahn, B. H. (2006). "Chimpanzee Reservoirs of Pandemic and Nonpandemic HIV-1". Science. Online 2006-05-25. PubMeddoi:10.1126/science.1126531.
# ^ a b c Herek, G. M. and Capitanio, J. P. (1999). "AIDS Stigma and sexual prejudice" (PDF). Am. Behav, Scientist. Diakses tanggal 2006-03-27.
108. ^ Cohen, J. (2000). "Vaccine Theory of AIDS Origins Disputed at Royal Society". Science 289 (5486): 1850–1851. PubMed.
# ^ Snyder M, Omoto AM, Crain AL. (1999). "Punished for their good deeds: stigmatization for AIDS volunteers". American Behavioral Scientist 42 (7): 1175–1192.
109. ^ Curtis, T. (1992). "The origin of AIDS". Rolling Stone (626): 54–59, 61, 106, 108.
# ^ Herek GM, Capitanio JP, Widaman KF. (2002). "HIV-related stigma and knowledge in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1991–1999" (PDF). Am. J. Public Health. 92 (3): 371–377. Text " PubMed " ignored (bantuan)
110. ^ Hooper, E. (1999). The River : A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS (1st ed.). Boston, MA: Little Brown & Co. pp. 1–1070. ISBN 0-316-37261-7.
# ^ a b Greener, R. (2002). "AIDS and macroeconomic impact". Di S, Forsyth (ed.). State of The Art: AIDS and Economics (PDF). IAEN. pp. 49–55.
111. ^ Worobey M, Santiago ML, Keele BF, Ndjango JB, Joy JB, Labama BL, Dhed'A BD, Rambaut A, Sharp PM, Shaw GM, Hahn BH (2004). "Origin of AIDS: contaminated polio vaccine theory refuted". Nature 428 (6985): 820. PubMed.
# ^ Over, M. (1992). "The macroeconomic impact of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa, Population and Human Resources Department". The World Bank.
112. ^ Berry N, Jenkins A, Martin J, Davis C, Wood D, Schild G, Bottiger M, Holmes H, Minor P, Almond N (2005). "Mitochondrial DNA and retroviral RNA analyses of archival oral polio vaccine (OPV CHAT) materials: evidence of macaque nuclear sequences confirms substrate identity". Vaccine 23: 1639–1648. PubMed.
# ^ Duesberg, P. H. (1988). "HIV is not the cause of AIDS". Science 241 (4865): 514, 517. PubMed.
113. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2004-03-23). "Oral Polio Vaccine and HIV / AIDS: Questions and Answers". Diakses tanggal 2006-11-20.
# ^ Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., Turner, V. F., Papadimitriou, J., Page, B., Causer, D., Alfonso, H., Mhlongo, S., Miller, T., Maniotis, A. and Fiala, C. (2004).
114. ^ UNAIDS (2006). "The impact of AIDS on people and societies" (PDF). 2006 Report on the global AIDS epidemic (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2006-06-14.
# ^ "A critique of the Montagnier evidence for the HIV/AIDS hypothesis". Med Hypotheses 63 (4): 597–601. PubMed.
115. ^ Ogden, J. and Nyblade, L. (2005). "Common at its core: HIV-related stigma across contexts" (PDF). International Center for Research on Women. Diakses tanggal 2007-02-15.
# ^ The Durban Declaration". Nature 406 (6791): 15–6. 2000. doi:10.1038/35017662. PMID 10894520.
116. ^ a b c Herek, G. M. and Capitanio, J. P. (1999). "AIDS Stigma and sexual prejudice" (PDF). Am. Behav, Scientist. Diakses tanggal 2006-03-27.
# ^ Cohen, J. (1994). "The Controversy over HIV and AIDS" (PDF). Science 266 (5191): 1642–1649.
117. ^ Snyder M, Omoto AM, Crain AL. (1999). "Punished for their good deeds: stigmatization for AIDS volunteers". American Behavioral Scientist 42 (7): 1175–1192.
# ^ Various. "Focus on the HIV-AIDS Connection: Resource links". National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Diakses tanggal 2006-09-07.
118. ^ Herek GM, Capitanio JP, Widaman KF. (2002). "HIV-related stigma and knowledge in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1991–1999" (PDF). Am. J. Public Health. 92 (3): 371–377. Text " PubMed " ignored (bantuan)
# ^ O'Brien SJ, Goedert JJ (1996). "HIV causes AIDS: Koch's postulates fulfilled". Curr. Opin. Immunol. 8 (5): 613–8. PMID 8902385.
119. ^ a b Greener, R. (2002). "AIDS and macroeconomic impact". Di S, Forsyth (ed.). State of The Art: AIDS and Economics (PDF). IAEN. pp. 49–55.
# ^ Galéa P, Chermann JC (1998). "HIV as the cause of AIDS and associated diseases". Genetica 104 (2): 133–42. PMID 10220906.
120. ^ Over, M. (1992). "The macroeconomic impact of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa, Population and Human Resources Department". The World Bank.
# ^ Watson J (2006). "Scientists, activists sue South Africa's AIDS 'denialists'". Nat. Med. 12 (1): 6. doi:10.1038/nm0106-6a. PMID 16397537.
121. ^ Duesberg, P. H. (1988). "HIV is not the cause of AIDS". Science 241 (4865): 514, 517. PubMed.
# ^ Baleta A (2003). "S Africa's AIDS activists accuse government of murder". Lancet 361 (9363): 1105. PMID 12672319.
122. ^ Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., Turner, V. F., Papadimitriou, J., Page, B., Causer, D., Alfonso, H., Mhlongo, S., Miller, T., Maniotis, A. and Fiala, C. (2004). "A critique of the Montagnier evidence for the HIV/AIDS hypothesis". Med Hypotheses 63 (4): 597–601. PubMed.
# ^ Cohen J (2000). "South Africa's new enemy". Science 288 (5474): 2168–70. PMID 10896606.
123. ^ Untuk bukti konsensis ilmu pengetahuan bahwa HIV menyebabkan AIDS, lihat:
 "The Durban Declaration". Nature 406 (6791): 15–6. 2000. doi:10.1038/35017662. PMID 10894520. - full text here.
 Cohen, J. (1994). "The Controversy over HIV and AIDS" (PDF). Science 266 (5191): 1642–1649.
 Various. "Focus on the HIV-AIDS Connection: Resource links". National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Diakses tanggal 2006-09-07.
 O'Brien SJ, Goedert JJ (1996). "HIV causes AIDS: Koch's postulates fulfilled". Curr. Opin. Immunol. 8 (5): 613–8. PMID 8902385.
 Galéa P, Chermann JC (1998). "HIV as the cause of AIDS and associated diseases". Genetica 104 (2): 133–42. PMID 10220906.
124. ^ Watson J (2006). "Scientists, activists sue South Africa's AIDS 'denialists'". Nat. Med. 12 (1): 6. doi:10.1038/nm0106-6a. PMID 16397537.
125. ^ Baleta A (2003). "S Africa's AIDS activists accuse government of murder". Lancet 361 (9363): 1105. PMID 12672319.
126. ^ Cohen J (2000). "South Africa's new enemy". Science 288 (5474): 2168–70. PMID 10896606.