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{{Infobox disease
[[Berkas:P vivax trophozoite4.jpg|thumb|200px|Sel darah merah yang terinfeksi oleh ''P.vivax'']]
| Name = Malaria
| Image = Malaria.jpg
| Caption = Sebuah ''Plasmodium'' dari air ludah nyamuk betina bergerak melalui sel nyamuk
| field = [[Infectious disease (medical specialty)|Infectious disease]]
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|B|50||b|50}}-{{ICD10|B|54||b|54}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|084}}
| DiseasesDB = 7728
| MedlinePlus = 000621
| OMIM = 248310
| eMedicineSubj = med
| eMedicineTopic = 1385
| eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|305}} {{eMedicine2|ped|1357}}
| MeshName = Malaria
| MeshNumber = C03.752.250.552
|Orphanet=673
}}
<!-- Definisi dan gejala -->
'''Malaria''' adalah penyakit yang ditularkan oleh nyamuk dari manusia dan hewan lain yang disebabkan oleh [[protozoa]] parasit (sekelompok [[mikroorganisme]] bersel tunggal) dalam [[Genus|tipe]] ''[[Plasmodium]]''.<ref name="WHO2014" /> Malaria menyebabkan gejala yang biasanya termasuk [[demam]], kelelahan, [[muntah]], dan [[sakit kepala]].<!-- <ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> --> Dalam kasus yang parah dapat menyebabkan [[penyakit kuning|kulit kuning]], [[kejang]], [[Koma (medis)|koma]], atau [[kematian]].<ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Gejala biasanya muncul sepuluh sampai lima belas hari setelah digigit.<!-- <ref name=WHO2014/> --> Jika tidak diobati, penyakit mungkin kambuh beberapa bulan kemudian.<ref name=WHO2014/> Pada mereka yang baru selamat dari infeksi, infeksi ulang biasanya menyebabkan gejala ringan.<!-- <ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> --> [[Imunitas (medis)|resistensi]] parsial ini menghilang selama beberapa bulan hingga beberapa tahun jika orang tersebut tidak terpapar terus-menerus dengan malaria.<ref name="Caraballo 2014">{{cite journal |author=Caraballo H |title=Emergency department management of mosquito-borne illness: Malaria, dengue, and west nile virus |journal=Emergency Medicine Practice |year=2014 |volume=16 |issue=5 |url=http://www.ebmedicine.net/topics.php?paction=showTopic&topic_id=405}}</ref>
 
<!--Penyebab dan diagnosis-->
'''Malaria''' adalah penyakit yang disebabkan oleh parasit bernama ''Plasmodium''.<ref name="WHO">{{en}} {{cite web
Penyakit ini paling sering ditularkan oleh nyamuk ''[[Anopheles]]'' betina yang terinfeksi.<!-- <ref name=WHO2014/> --> Gigitan nyamuk memasukkan [[parasit]] dari air liur nyamuk ke dalam [[Sistem sirkulasi|darah]] seseorang.<ref name=WHO2014/> Parasit bergerak ke hati di mana mereka dewasa dan bereproduksi.<!-- <ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> --> Lima spesies ''Plasmodium'' dapat menginfeksi dan disebarkan oleh manusia.<ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Sebagian besar kematian disebabkan oleh ''[[Plasmodium falciparum|P.&nbsp;falciparum]]'' karena ''[[Plasmodium vivax|P.&nbsp;vivax]]'', ''[[Plasmodium ovale|P.&nbsp;ovale]]'', and ''[[Plasmodium malariae|P.&nbsp;malariae]]'' umumnya menyebabkan bentuk yang lebih ringan dari malaria.<ref name=WHO2014/><ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Spesies ''[[Plasmodium knowlesi|P.&nbsp;knowlesi]]'' jarang menyebabkan penyakit pada manusia.<ref name=WHO2014/> Malaria biasanya didiagnosis dengan pemeriksaan mikroskopis darah menggunakan [[film darah]], atau dengan [[Tes deteksi antigen malaria|uji diagnostik cepat]] berdasarkan-[[antigen]].<ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Metode yang menggunakan [[reaksi berantai polimerase]] untuk mendeteksi [[DNA]] parasit telah dikembangkan, tetapi tidak banyak digunakan di daerah di mana malaria [[Endemik (epidemiologi)|umum]] karena biaya dan kompleksitasnya.<ref name="Nadjm 2012">{{Cite journal |author=Nadjm B, Behrens RH |title=Malaria: An update for physicians |journal=Infectious Disease Clinics of North America |year=2012 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=243–59 |pmid=22632637 |doi=10.1016/j.idc.2012.03.010}}</ref>
| url = http://www.who.int/topics/malaria/en/
| title = Malaria
| first = [WHO]World Health Organization
| last =
| date =
| month =
| year = 2011
| work =
| publisher = World Health Organization
| accessdate = 10-07-2011
| quote =
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}}</ref> Penyakit ini ditularkan melalui gigitan nyamuk yang terinfeksi parasit tersebut.<ref name="CDC">{{en}} {{cite web
| url = http://www.cdc.gov/MALARIA/
| title = Malaria
| first = [CDC]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
| last =
| date =
| month =
| year = 2010
| work =
| publisher = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
| accessdate = 10-07-2011
| quote =
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}}</ref> Di dalam tubuh manusia, parasit ''Plasmodium'' akan berkembang biak di organ hati kemudian menginfeksi sel darah merah yang akhirnya menyebabkan penderita mengalami gejala-gejala malaria seperti gejala pada penderita influenza. Apabila tidak diobati, penyakit akan semakin parah dan dapat terjadi komplikasi yang berujung pada kematian .<ref name="CDC"/>
 
<!--Pencegahan dan penanganan-->
Penyakit ini paling banyak terjadi di daerah tropis dan subtropis di mana parasit ''Plasmodium'' dapat berkembang baik begitu pula dengan vektor nyamuk ''Anopheles''.<ref name="CDC2">{{en}} {{cite web
Risiko penyakit dapat dikurangi dengan mencegah gigitan nyamuk dengan menggunakan [[kelambu]] dan [[penolak serangga]], atau dengan tindakan kontrol-nyamuk seperti penyemprotan [[insektisida]] dan menguras genangan air.<ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Beberapa obat tersedia untuk [[Profilaksis malaria|mencegah malaria]] pada wisatawan ke daerah di mana penyakit umum.<!-- <ref name=WHO2014/> --> Dosis sesekali obat [[sulfadoksin/pirimetamin]] direkomendasikan pada [[bayi]] dan setelah [[trimester pertama]] kehamilan di daerah dengan tingkat malaria tinggi.<!-- <ref name=WHO2014/> --> Meskipun adanya kebutuhan, tidak ada [[vaksin]] yang efektif, meskipun upaya untuk mengembangkannya sedang berlangsung.<ref name=WHO2014/> Pengobatan yang direkomendasikan untuk malaria adalah kombinasi [[obat antimalaria]] yang mencakup [[artemisinin]].<ref name=WHO2014/><ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Obat kedua mungkin baik [[meflokuin]], [[lumefantrin]], atau [[sulfadoksin/pirimetamin]].<ref name=WHO2010>{{cite book|last1=Organization|first1=World Health|title=Guidelines for the treatment of malaria|date=2010|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=9789241547925|page=ix|edition=2nd}}</ref> [[Kuinin]] bersama dengan [[doksisiklin]] dapat digunakan jika artemisinin tidak tersedia.<ref name=WHO2010/> Direkomendasikan bahwa di daerah di mana penyakit ini umum, malaria dikonfirmasi jika mungkin sebelum pengobatan dimulai karena kekhawatiran peningkatan [[resistensi obat]].<!-- <ref name=WHO2014/> --> Resistensi parasit telah berkembang untuk beberapa obat antimalaria; misalnya, ''P.&nbsp;falciparum'' resisten-[[klorokuin]] telah menyebar ke sebagian besar wilayah malaria, dan ketahanan terhadap artemisinin telah menjadi masalah di beberapa bagian Asia Tenggara.<ref name=WHO2014>{{cite web|title=Malaria Fact sheet N°94|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/|website=WHO|accessdate=28 August 2014|date=March 2014}}</ref>
| url = http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/distribution.html
| title = Where Malaria Occurs
| first = [CDC]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
| last =
| date =
| month =
| year = 2010
| work =
| publisher = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
| accessdate = 10-07-2011
| quote =
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}}</ref> Daerah selatan Sahara di Afrika dan Papua Nugini di Oceania merupakan tempat-tempat dengan angka kejadian malaria tertinggi.<ref name="CDC2"/>
 
<!--Epidemiologi, masyarakat, dan budaya-->
Berdasarkan data di dunia, penyakit malaria membunuh satu anak setiap 30 detik.<ref name="UNICEF">{{en}} {{cite web
Penyakit ini tersebar luas di daerah [[Tropika|tropis]] dan [[subtropis]] yang ada di pita lebar sekitar [[khatulistiwa]].<ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Ini termasuk banyak dari [[Afrika Sub-Sahara]], [[Asia]], dan [[Amerika Latin]].<!-- <ref name=WHO2014/> --> Pada 2015, ada 214 juta kasus malaria di seluruh dunia.<ref name=WHO15>{{cite web|title=Malaria Fact sheet N°94|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/|publisher=WHO|accessdate=2 February 2016}}</ref> Hal ini mengakibatkan sekitar 438.000 kematian, 90% di antaranya terjadi di Afrika.<ref name=WHO15/> Tingkat penyakit menurun dari tahun 2000 hingga 2015 sebesar 37%,<ref name=WHO15/> namun meningkat dari 2014 di mana ada 198 juta kasus.<ref name=WHO2014Book>{{cite book|last1=WHO|title=World Malaria Report 2014|date=2014|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva, Switzerland|isbn=978-92-4156483-0|pages=32–42|url=http://www.who.int/entity/malaria/publications/world_malaria_report_2014/en/index.html}}</ref> Malaria umumnya terkait dengan kemiskinan dan memiliki efek negatif yang besar pada [[pembangunan ekonomi]].<ref name="IftSoL"/><ref name="Worrall 2005"/> Di Afrika, malaria diperkirakan mengakibatkan kerugian sebesar US$12 miliar setahun karena meningkatnya biaya kesehatan, kehilangan kemampuan untuk bekerja, dan efek negatif pada pariwisata.<ref name="Greenwood 2005"/>
| url = http://www.unicef.org/health/index_malaria.html
| title = Malaria
| first = UNICEF
| last =
| date =
| month =
| year = 2011
| work =
| publisher = UNICEF
| accessdate = 10-07-2011
| quote =
| ref =
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}}</ref> Sekitar 300-500 juta orang terinfeksi dan sekitar 1 juta orang meninggal karena penyakit ini setiap tahunnya.<ref name="UNICEF"/> Sebanyak 90% dari jumlah kematian yang terjadi di Afrika dialami anak-anak.<ref name="UNICEF"/>
 
==Tanda-tanda dan gejala==
Untuk penemuannya atas penyebab malaria, seorang dokter militer Prancis [[Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran]] mendapatkan [[Penghargaan Nobel untuk Fisiologi dan Medis]] pada [[1907]].
[[File:Symptoms of Malaria.png|thumb|250px|Gejala utama dari malaria<ref name="PPID 2010"/>]]
Tanda-tanda dan gejala malaria biasanya mulai 8-25 hari setelah terinfeksi;<ref name="PPID 2010"/> namun, gejala dapat terjadi kemudian pada orang-orang yang telah mengambil obat antimalaria sebagai pencegahan.<ref name="Nadjm 2012"/> Manifestasi awal dari penyakit—umum untuk semua spesies malaria—mirip dengan gejala [[flu]],<ref name="Bartoloni 2012"/> dan dapat menyerupai kondisi lain seperti [[sepsis]], [[gastroenteritis]], dan [[penyakit virus]].<ref name="Nadjm 2012"/> Presentasi mungkin termasuk [[sakit kepala]], [[demam]], [[menggigil]], [[artralgia|nyeri sendi]], [[muntah]], [[anemia hemolitik]], [[penyakit kuning]], [[hemoglobinuria|hemoglobin dalam urin]], [[Retinopati|kerusakan retina]], dan [[kejang|kejang-kejang]].<ref name="Beare 2006"/>
 
Gejala klasik malaria adalah [[paroksismal]]—kejadian bersiklus kedinginan tiba-tiba diikuti dengan menggigil dan kemudian demam dan berkeringat, terjadi setiap dua hari ([[Demam#Jenis-jenis|demam tertiana]]) di infeksi ''P.&nbsp;vivax'' dan ''P.&nbsp;ovale'', dan setiap tiga hari ([[Demam#Jenis-jenis|demam kuartana]]) untuk ''P.&nbsp;malariae''. Infeksi ''P.&nbsp;falciparum'' dapat menyebabkan demam berulang setiap 36-48 jam, atau demam kurang menonjol dan hampir terus menerus.<ref name="Ferri 2009"/>
== Patofisiologi ==
Malaria disebabkan oleh [[parasit]] [[protozoa]]. ''[[Plasmodium]]'' (salah satu [[Apicomplexa]]) dan dapat menyebabkan kematian bila tak terawat; anak kecil lebih mungkin berakibat fatal.
 
Malaria berat biasanya disebabkan oleh ''P.&nbsp;falciparum'' (sering disebut sebagai malaria falciparum). Gejala malaria falciparum timbul 9-30 hari setelah terinfeksi.<ref name="Bartoloni 2012"/> Individu dengan malaria serebral sering menunjukkan gejala [[Gangguan neurologis|neurologis]], termasuk [[postur abnormal]], [[nistagmus]], [[kelumpuhan tatapan konjugat]] (kegagalan mata untuk bergerak bersama-sama dalam arah yang sama), [[opistotonus]], [[kejang]], atau [[Koma (medis)|koma]].<ref name="Bartoloni 2012"/>
== Epidemiologi==
Nyamuk ''Anopheles'' tinggal di area tropis, subtropis. Secara umum, malaria bukanlah penyakit yang dialami oleh masyarakat yang berada di lingkungan dingin, contoh tidak ditemukan malaria di area [[Amerika Utara]]. Kata malaria berasal dari bahasa [[Italia]] yaitu udara yang buruk.<ref name="satu">{{en}} Madigan M, Martinko J, Stahl D, Clark D. 2011. ''Brock Biology of Microorganisms''. Ed ke-13. New York: Pearson.</ref>
Siklus hidup protista ini sangat kompleks. Pertama-tama manusia yang terinfeksi oleh [[sporozoit]] (sel parasit yang ditemukan pada [[kelenjar]] ludah nyamuk). Nyamuk akan menyuntikkan ludahnya yang mengandung [[antikoagulan]] bersamaan dengan sporozoit dan memperoleh makanan dari [[darah]] manusia. Sporozoit akan mengalir bersama darah menuju organ [[hati]] dan tinggal atau berkembang biak menjadi besar yang disebut [[skizon]]. Skizon lalu membelah menjadi [[merozoit]] yang akan meninggalkan hati, kembali masuk ke dalam aliran pembuluh darah. Beberaoa merozoit akan menginfeksi sel darah merah ([[eritrosit]]).<ref name="satu"/>
Infeksi dari merozoit akan menghancurkan sel darah merah inang yang akan menyebabkan [[anemia]] dan pembengkakan. Merozoit akan berdiferensiasi menjadi [[gametosit]] yang hanya menginfeksi nyamuk. Gametosit akan tertelan dengan bersamaan dengan darah. Gametosit akan berkembang menjadi [[gamet]] dan akan berfusi menjadi [[zigot]]. Zigot ini akan bermigrasi menggunakan kemampuan ameboid menuju dinding luar dar saluran pencernaan nyamuk dan terus membesar menjadi sporozoit. Sporozoit ini akan terus bermigrasi menuju kelenjar ludah nyamuk.<ref name="satu"/>
 
== Pengobatan Komplikasi==
Malaria memiliki beberapa [[Komplikasi (kedokteran)|komplikasi]] yang serius. Di antaranya adalah pengembangan [[gangguan pernapasan]], yang terjadi di hingga 25% dari orang dewasa dan 40% dari anak-anak dengan malaria ''P.&nbsp;falciparum'' parah. Kemungkinan penyebab termasuk kompensasi pernapasan [[asidosis metabolik]], [[edema paru]] nonkardiogenik, [[pneumonia]] bersamaan, dan [[anemia]] berat. Meskipun jarang terjadi pada anak-anak dengan malaria berat, [[sindrom gangguan pernapasan akut]] terjadi pada 5-25% dari orang dewasa dan sampai 29% dari wanita hamil.<ref name="Taylor 2012"/> [[Koinfeksi]] [[HIV]] dengan malaria meningkatkan angka kematian.<ref name="Korenromp 2005"/> Gagal ginjal adalah fitur dari [[demam blackwater]], di mana hemoglobin dari sel darah merah yang [[Lisis|pecah]] bocor ke dalam urin.<ref name="Bartoloni 2012"/>
Pengobatan malaria tergantung kepada jenis parasit dan resistensi parasit terhadap [[klorokuin]].
 
Infeksi ''P.&nbsp;falciparum'' dapat mengakibatkan malaria serebral, bentuk malaria berat yang melibatkan [[ensefalopati]]. Hal ini terkait dengan memutihnya retina, yang mungkin merupakan tanda klinis yang berguna dalam membedakan malaria dari penyebab lain dari demam.<ref name="Beare 2011"/> Splenomegali, sakit kepala parah, [[hepatomegali]] (pembesaran hati), [[hipoglikemia]], dan hemoglobinuria dengan [[gagal ginjal]] dapat terjadi.<ref name="Bartoloni 2012"/> Komplikasi dapat mencakup perdarahan spontan dan koagulopati. Dapat menyebabkan syok.<ref>Davidson's Principles and Practice of Medicine/21st/351</ref>
Untuk suatu serangan malaria oleh ''Plasmodium falciparum'' yang resisten terhadap klorokuin, bisa diberikan kuinin atau kuinidin secara intravena. Pada malaria lainnya jarang terjadi resistensi terhadap klorokuin, karena itu biasanya diberikan klorokuin dan primakuin.
 
[[Malaria terkait-kehamilan|Malaria pada ibu hamil]] merupakan penyebab penting dari [[lahir mati]], [[kematian bayi]], [[aborsi]] dan [[berat badan lahir rendah]],<ref name="Hartman 2010"/> terutama pada infeksi ''P.&nbsp;falciparum'', tetapi juga dengan ''P.&nbsp;vivax''.<ref name="Rijken 2012"/>
Tanggal 18 Oktober 2011 tim peneliti melaporkan hasil uji coba klinis Fase III vaksin untuk melawan parasit ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]'' disebut RTS, S/AS01 yang didanai [[GlaxoSmithKline]] dan [[Malaria Vaccine Initiative]] PATH pada ribuan anak-anak di Afrika.<ref>{{id}} [http://jurnal.kesimpulan.com/2011/10/hasil-awal-uji-klinis-tahap-3-vaksin.html ''Jurnal KeSimpulan.com'' - Hasil Awal Uji Klinis Tahap 3 Vaksin Malaria RTS, S/AS01]</ref>
 
== Referensi Penyebab==
{{reflistmain|Plasmodium}}
* Ito J, Ghosh A, Moreira LA, Wimmer EA, Jacobs-Lorena M. ''Transgenic anopheline mosquitoes impaired in transmission of a malaria parasite''. [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] 2002;417:387-8. PMID 12024215
 
[[Parasit]] malaria termasuk dalam genus ''[[Plasmodium]]'' (filum [[Apicomplexa]]). Pada manusia, malaria disebabkan oleh ''[[Plasmodium falciparum|P.&nbsp;falciparum]]'', ''[[Plasmodium malariae|P.&nbsp;malariae]]'', ''[[Plasmodium ovale|P.&nbsp;ovale]]'', ''[[Plasmodium vivax|P.&nbsp;vivax]]'' dan ''[[Plasmodium knowlesi|P.&nbsp;knowlesi]]''.<ref name="Mueller 2007"/><ref name="Collins 2012"/> Di antara mereka yang terinfeksi, ''P.&nbsp;falciparum'' merupakan spesies yang paling umum diidentifikasi (~75%) diikuti oleh ''P.&nbsp;vivax'' (~20%).<ref name="Nadjm 2012"/> Meskipun ''P.&nbsp;falciparum'' secara tradisional menyumbang mayoritas kematian,<ref name="Sarkar 2009"/> bukti terbaru menunjukkan bahwa malaria ''P.&nbsp;vivax'' terkait dengan kondisi yang berpotensi mengancam jiwa sekitar sesering dengan diagnosis infeksi ''P. falciparum''.<ref name="Baird 2013"/> ''P.&nbsp;vivax'' secara proporsional lebih umum di luar Afrika.<ref name="Arnott 2012"/> Telah didokumentasikan infeksi manusia oleh beberapa spesies ''Plasmodium'' dari [[Simiiformes|kera yang lebih tinggi]]; namun, kecuali untuk ''P.&nbsp;knowlesi''—spesies [[zoonosis|zoonotik]] yang menyebabkan malaria pada [[makaka]]<ref name="Collins 2012"/>—hal ini kebanyakan tidak begitu penting bagi kesehatan masyarakat.<ref name="Collins 2009"/>
== Pranala luar ==
* [http://mosquito.who.int/malariacontrol WHO site on malaria]
* [http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/ CDC site on malaria]
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/malaria.html Medline Plus site on malaria]
* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317837/us317920/us53948/us931698/us948221/us927213/us948384/us274409/ LookSmart - ''Malaria''] directory category
* [http://dmoz.org/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Infectious_Diseases/Parasitic/Malaria/ Open Directory Project - ''Malaria''] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Diseases_and_Conditions/Malaria/ Yahoo! - ''Malaria''] directory category
* [http://medicastore.com/index.php?mod=penyakit&id=792 ''Medicastore malaria''] directory category
=== Vaksin dan riset lainnya ===
* [http://www.malariavaccine.org Malaria Vaccine Initiative]
* [http://www.map.ox.ac.uk/ Malaria Atlas Project]
* [http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/malaria/ Wellcome Trust against Malaria]
* [http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99996537 New Scientist - ''New Malaria Vaccine Raises High Hopes''] [[15 October]] [[2004]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3742876.stm BBC - ''Hopes of Malaria Vaccine by 2010''] [[15 October]] [[2004]]
* [http://web.archive.org/20000118154924/www.who.int/tdr/diseases/malaria/default.htm Malaria. The UNICEF-UNDP-World Bank-WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases]
* [http://stevenlehrer.com/explorers/chapter_6-5.htm story of the discovery of the vector of the malarial parasite]
* [http://www.malariasite.com/malaria/History.htm History of discoveries in malaria]
* [http://www.iberianature.com/material/malaria.html History of Malaria in Spain]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4419835.stm BBC - ''Science shows how malaria hides''] [[8 April]] [[2005]]
 
[[Efek pemanasan global pada kesehatan manusia#Malaria|Pemanasan global]] kemungkinan akan mempengaruhi penyebaran malaria, namun tingkat keparahan dan distribusi geografis dari efek itu tidak pasti.<ref name="Parham 2011"/><ref name=who-chap6>{{cite web|title=Climate Change And Infectious Diseases|url=http://www.who.int/globalchange/climate/en/chapter6.pdf|work=CLIMATE CHANGE AND HUMAN HEALTH—RISK AND RESPONSES|publisher=World Health Organization |format=PDF}}</ref>
=== DDT ===
* [http://info-pollution.com/ddtban.htm The DDT Ban Myth]
 
==Referensi==
=== Animasi, gambar, dan foto ===
{{Reflist|colwidth=32em|refs=
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/05/world_burden_of_malaria/html/1.stm Burden of Malaria], [[BBC]] pictures relating to malaria in northern [[Uganda]]
* [http://www.sumanasinc.com/scienceinfocus/sif_malaria.html Malaria: Cooperation among Parasite, Vector, and Host (Animation)]
 
<ref name="Abba 2011">{{Cite journal |author=Abba K, Deeks JJ, Olliaro P, Naing CM, Jackson SM, Takwoingi Y, Donegan S, Garner P |title=Rapid diagnostic tests for diagnosing uncomplicated ''P. falciparum'' malaria in endemic countries |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |year=2011 |issue=7 |page=CD008122 |pmid=21735422 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008122.pub2 |editor1-last=Abba |editor1-first=Katharine}}</ref>
[[Kategori:Malaria| ]]
 
<ref name="Abeku 2007">{{Cite journal |author=Abeku TA |title=Response to malaria epidemics in Africa |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|year=2007 |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=681–6 |pmid=17553244 |pmc=2738452 |url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/13/5/06-1333.htm |doi=10.3201/eid1305.061333}} {{open access}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Achan 2011">{{Cite journal |author=Achan J, Talisuna AO, Erhart A, Yeka A, Tibenderana JK, Baliraine FN, Rosenthal PJ, D'Alessandro U |title=Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: Role in the treatment of malaria |journal=Malaria Journal|year=2011 |volume=10 |page=144 |pmid=21609473 |pmc=3121651 |url=http://www.malariajournal.com/content/10/1/144 |issue=1|doi=10.1186/1475-2875-10-144}} {{open access}}</ref>
{{medis-stub}}
 
<ref name="Ameri 2010">{{Cite journal |author=Ameri M |title=Laboratory diagnosis of malaria in nonhuman primates |journal=Veterinary Clinical Pathology |year=2010 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=5–19 |pmid=20456124 |doi=10.1111/j.1939-165X.2010.00217.x}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Arnott 2012">{{Cite journal |author=Arnott A, Barry AE, Reeder JC |title=Understanding the population genetics of ''Plasmodium vivax'' is essential for malaria control and elimination |journal=Malaria Journal |volume=11 |page=14 |pmid=22233585|doi=10.1186/1475-2875-11-14 |pmc=3298510 |year=2012}} {{open access}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Arrow 2004">{{Cite book |author=Arrow KJ, Panosian C, Gelband H, Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on the Economics of Antimalarial Drugs |title=Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance |year=2004 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-09218-0 |page=141 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PL8EmnGt71sC&pg=PA141}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Ashley 2014">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Ashley EA, Dhorda M, Fairhurst RM, Amaratunga C, Lim P, etal |title=Spread of artemisinin resistance in ''Plasmodium falciparum'' malaria |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |year=2014 |volume=371 |issue=5 |pages=411–23 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1314981 |pmid=25075834}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Aultman 2002">{{cite journal |author=Aultman KS, Gottlieb M, Giovanni MY, Fauci AS |title=''Anopheles gambiae'' genome: completing the malaria triad |journal=Science |volume=298 |issue=5591 |page=13 |year=2002 |pmid=12364752 |doi=10.1126/science.298.5591.13}}</ref>
 
<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/history/index.htm#mcwa |title=History &#124; CDC Malaria|publisher=Cdc.gov |date=February 8, 2010 |accessdate=2012-05-15}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="Baird 2013">{{Cite journal |author=Baird JK |title=Evidence and implications of mortality associated with acute ''Plasmodium vivax'' malaria |journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews |year=2013 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=36–57 |doi=10.1128/CMR.00074-12|pmid=23297258 |pmc=3553673}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Bardají 2012">{{Cite journal |author=Bardají A, Bassat Q, Alonso PL, Menéndez C |title=Intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnant women and infants: making best use of the available evidence |journal=Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy |year=2012|volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1719–36 |pmid=22775553 |doi=10.1517/14656566.2012.703651}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="Bhalla 2006">{{Cite journal |author=Bhalla A, Suri V, Singh V |title=Malarial hepatopathy |journal=Journal of Postgraduate Medicine |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=315–20 |year=2006 |pmid=17102560 |url=http://www.jpgmonline.com/article.asp?issn=0022-3859;year=2006;volume=52;issue=4;spage=315;epage=320;aulast=Bhalla}} {{open access}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Biot 2012">{{Cite journal |author=Biot C, Castro W, Botté CY, Navarro M |title=The therapeutic potential of metal-based antimalarial agents: Implications for the mechanism of action |journal=Dalton Transactions |year=2012 |volume=41 |issue=21 |pages=6335–49|pmid=22362072 |doi=10.1039/C2DT12247B}}</ref> <!--investigate erratum in Pubmed link -->
 
<ref name="Bledsoe 2005">{{Cite journal |author=Bledsoe GH |title=Malaria primer for clinicians in the United States |journal=Southern Medical Journal |volume=98 |issue=12 |pages=1197–204; quiz 1205, 1230 |year=2005 |pmid=16440920 |url=http://journals.lww.com/smajournalonline/Fulltext/2005/12000/Malaria_Primer_for_Clinicians_in_the_United_States.12.aspx |doi=10.1097/01.smj.0000189904.50838.eb}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="CDC Malaria">{{Cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/faqs.html#treatment |title=Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs): If I get malaria, will I have it for the rest of my life? |publisher=US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |date=February 8, 2010|accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Chernin 1977">{{Cite journal |author=Chernin E |title=Patrick Manson (1844–1922) and the transmission of filariasis|journal=American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |volume=26 |issue=5 Pt 2 Suppl |pages=1065–70 |year=1977 |pmid=20786}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="Collins 2009">{{Cite journal |author=Collins WE, Barnwell JW |title=''Plasmodium knowlesi:'' finally being recognized|journal=Journal of Infectious Diseases |year=2009 |volume=199 |issue=8 |pages=1107–8 |doi=10.1086/597415 |pmid=19284287}} {{open access}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Collins 2012">{{Cite journal |author=Collins WE |title=''Plasmodium knowlesi'': A malaria parasite of monkeys and humans |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |year=2012 |volume=57 |pages=107–21 |pmid=22149265 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-121510-133540}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="CDC history">{{Cite web |title=Eradication of Malaria in the United States (1947–1951)|url=http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/history/elimination_us.html |publisher=US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |date=February 8, 2010 |accessdate=2012-05-02}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="CDC Ross">{{Cite web |title=Ross and the Discovery that Mosquitoes Transmit Malaria Parasites |work=CDC Malaria website|url=http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/history/ross.htm |accessdate=2012-06-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070602185153/http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/history/ross.htm |archivedate=2007-06-02}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="Cromptom 2010">{{Cite journal |author=Crompton PD, Pierce SK, Miller LH |title=Advances and challenges in malaria vaccine development |journal=Journal of Clinical Investigation |year=2010 |volume=120 |issue=12 |pages=4168–78 |pmid=21123952 |pmc=2994342|doi=10.1172/JCI44423}} {{open access}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Cui 2012">{{Cite journal |author=Cui L, Yan G, Sattabongkot J, Cao Y, Chen B, Chen X, Fan Q, Fang Q, Jongwutiwes S, Parker D, Sirichaisinthop J, Kyaw MP, Su XZ, Yang H, Yang Z, Wang B, Xu J, Zheng B, Zhong D, Zhou G |title=Malaria in the Greater Mekong Subregion: Heterogeneity and complexity |journal=Acta Tropica |year=2012 |volume=121 |issue=3 |pages=227–39 |pmid=21382335 |pmc=3132579|doi=10.1016/j.actatropica.2011.02.016}} {{open access}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Dondorp 2010">{{Cite journal |author=Dondorp AM, Yeung S, White L, Nguon C, Day NPJ, Socheat D, von Seidlein L |title=Artemisinin resistance: Current status and scenarios for containment |journal=Nature Reviews Microbiology |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=272–80 |year=2010 |pmid=20208550 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro2331}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Du 2011">{{Cite journal |author=Du Q, Wang H, Xie J |title=Thiamin (vitamin B1) biosynthesis and regulation: A rich source of antimicrobial drug targets? |journal=International Journal of Biological Sciences |year=2011 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=41–52 |pmid=21234302|pmc=3020362 |doi=10.7150/ijbs.7.41}} {{open access}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Enayati 2007">{{Cite journal |author=Enayati AA, Hemingway J, Garner P. |title=Electronic mosquito repellents for preventing mosquito bites and malaria infection |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |issue=2 |pages=CD005434 |year=2007|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005434.pub2 |pmid=17443590 |url=http://www.thecochranelibrary.com/userfiles/ccoch/file/CD005434.pdf |format=PDF |editor1-last=Enayati |editor1-first=Ahmadali}}<!-- this was assessed by Cochrane as up-to-date as of March 2009--></ref>
 
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<ref name="Graves 2006b">{{Cite journal |author=Graves P, Gelband H |title=Vaccines for preventing malaria (blood-stage) |issue=4 |page=CD006199 |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |year=2006 |editor1-last=Graves PM |pmid=17054281 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006199}} {{open access}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="Hays 2005">{{Cite book |author=Hays JN |title=Epidemics and Pandemics: Their Impacts on Human History |year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, California |isbn=978-1-85109-658-9 |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GyE8Qt-kS1kC&pg=PA11}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="Hill 2011">{{Cite journal |author=Hill AVS |title=Vaccines against malaria |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |year=2011 |volume=366 |issue=1579 |pages=2806–14 |pmid=21893544 |pmc=3146776|doi=10.1098/rstb.2011.0091}} {{open access}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="Kaufman 2005">{{Cite journal |author=Kaufman TS, Rúveda EA |title=The quest for quinine: Those who won the battles and those who won the war |journal=Angewandte Chemie (International Edition in English) |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=854–85 |year=2005 |pmid=15669029|doi=10.1002/anie.200400663}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="van den Berg 2009">{{Cite journal |author=van den Berg H |year=2009 |title=Global status of DDT and its alternatives for use in vector control to prevent disease |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=117 |issue=11 |pages=1656–63 |pmid=20049114 |pmc=2801202 |doi=10.1289/ehp.0900785}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Vanderberg 2009">{{Cite journal |author=Vanderberg JP |title=Reflections on early malaria vaccine studies, the first successful human malaria vaccination, and beyond |journal=Vaccine |year=2009 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=2–9 |pmid=18973784 |pmc=2637529|doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.10.028}} {{open access}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Vaughan 2008">{{Cite journal |author=Vaughan AM, Aly AS, Kappe SH |title=Malaria parasite pre-erythrocytic stage infection: Gliding and hiding |journal=Cell Host & Microbe |year=2008 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=209–18 |pmid=18779047 |pmc=2610487|doi=10.1016/j.chom.2008.08.010}} {{open access}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Vogel 2013">{{Cite journal |author=Vogel V |journal=Science |title=Malaria as a lifesaving therapy |volume=342 |issue=6159 |pages=684–7 |year=2013 |doi=10.1126/science.342.6159.684}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Waters 2012">{{Cite book |author=Waters NC, Edstein MD |editor-last=Staines HM, Krishna S (eds) |chapter=8-Aminoquinolines: Primaquine and tafenoquine |title=Treatment and Prevention of Malaria: Antimalarial Drug Chemistry, Action and Use |year=2012|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-0346-0479-6 |pages=69–93 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNuY6tyyyrUC&pg=PA69}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Weatherall 2008">{{Cite journal |author=Weatherall DJ |title=Genetic variation and susceptibility to infection: The red cell and malaria |journal=British Journal of Haematology |year=2008 |volume=141 |issue=3 |pages=276–86 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2141.2008.07085.x|pmid=18410566}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="Williams 1963">{{Cite journal |author=Williams LL |title=Malaria eradication in the United States |journal=American Journal of Public Health and the Nation's Health |year=1963 |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=17–21 |pmid=14000898 |pmc=1253858 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.53.1.17}} {{open access}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="World Malaria Report 2012">{{Cite report |url=http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/world_malaria_report_2012/wmr2012_no_profiles.pdf |format=PDF |title=World Malaria Report 2012 |publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref>
 
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<ref name="WSJ 2008">{{Cite web |author=Schoofs M |title=Clinton foundation sets up malaria-drug price plan |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121626447476161201.html |date=July 17, 2008 |publisher=Wall Street Journal |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Yangzom 2012">{{Cite journal |author=Yangzom T, Gueye CS, Namgay R, Galappaththy GN, Thimasarn K, Gosling R, Murugasampillay S, Dev V |title=Malaria control in Bhutan: Case study of a country embarking on elimination |year=2012 |volume=11 |page=9 |pmid=22230355 |pmc=3278342 |doi=10.1186/1475-2875-11-9 |journal=Malaria Journal}} {{open access}}</ref>
 
}}
 
;Literatur yang dikutip
* {{Cite report |author=WHO |title=Guidelines for the Treatment of Malaria |edition=2nd |year=2010 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-9-2415-4792-5 |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241547925_eng.pdf |format=PDF |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book |author=Schlagenhauf-Lawlor P |title=Travelers' Malaria |year=2008 |publisher=PMPH-USA |isbn=978-1-55009-336-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54Dza0UHyngC |ref=harv}}
 
==Bacaan lebih lanjut==
* {{Cite book |author=Bynum WF, Overy C |title=The Beast in the Mosquito: The Correspondence of Ronald Ross and Patrick Manson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5BXbsSJLaToC |year=1998 |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=978-90-420-0721-5 |series=Wellcome Institute Series in The History of Medicine}}
* {{cite book|title=Guidelines for the treatment of malaria|date=2015|publisher=World Health Organization|isbn=9789241549127|edition=3rd |url=http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/9789241549127/en/}}
 
==Pranala luar==
{{Sister project links |wikt=malaria |commons=Malaria |n=Malaria |q=no |s=Malaria |b=Malaria |voy=Malaria |v=Malaria}}
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Infectious_Diseases/Parasitic/Malaria}}
* [http://www.emro.who.int/entity/malaria-control-and-elimination/ WHO site on malaria]
* [http://www.unhco.org/malaria/ UNHCO site on malaria]
* [http://www.rollbackmalaria.org/gmap/ Global Malaria Action Plan] (2008)
* [http://doctorswithoutborders.org/news/issue.cfm?id=2395 Doctors Without Borders/Médecins Sans Frontières – ''Malaria''] information pages
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130520072620/http://www.wehi.edu.au/other_domains/MalDB/who.html WHO/TDR Malaria Database] via the [[Wayback Machine]]
* [http://www.antimalariaomd.org/en/index.php Anti-malaria and sustainable development]
* [http://www.wwarn.org Worldwide Antimalarial Resistance Network (WWARN)]
 
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[[Kategori:Malaria| ]]
[[Category:Apicomplexa]]
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