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Baris 104:
[[Berkas:Descartes-reflex.JPG|thumb|right|Penggambaran jalur rasa sakit, dari ''Treatise of Man'' karya [[René Descartes]].]]
 
Dalam sejarah, selama bertahun-tahun pandangan utama dalam fungsi sistem saraf adalah penghubung stimulus-respons.<ref name=Sherrington1906/> Dalam konsep ini, proses saraf dimulai dengan stimuli yang mengaktifkan neuron sensoris, menghasilkan sinyal yang berpropagasi melalui serangkaian hubungan dalam sumsum tulang belakang dan otak, mengaktifkan neuron motorik dan maka menghasilkan respons seperti kontraksi otot. [[Descartes]] percaya bahwa semua tingkah laku hewan, dan kebanyakan tingkah laku manusia, dapat dijelaskan dalam kerangka sirkuit stimulus-respons, walaupun ia juga percaya bahwa fungsi kognitif yang lebih tinggi seperti bahasa tidak mampu dijelaskan secara mekanis.<ref name=Descartes>{{Cite book|title=Passions of the Soul |author=Descartes R |publisher=Hackett |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-87220-035-7 |others=Voss S}}</ref> [[Charles Sherrington]], dalam bukunya pada tahun 1906 yang berjudul ''The Integrative Action of the Nervous System'',<ref name=Sherrington1906>{{Cite book|author=Sherrington CS |title=The Integrative Action of the Nervous System |publisher=Scribner |year=1906 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=6KwRAAAAYAAJ}}</ref> mengembangkan konsep mekanisme stimulus-respons dengan cara yang lebih detail, dan [[Behaviorisme]], mazhab yang mendominasi [[psikologi]] sepanjang pertengahan abad ke-20, mencoba untuk menjelaskan setiap aspek tingkah laku manusia dalam rangka stimulus-respons.<ref name=Baum>{{Cite book| author=Baum WM |year=2005 |title=Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-1262-8}}</ref>
 
Namun, penelitian [[elektrofisiologi]] yang dimulai pada awal abad 20 dan mencapai produktivitasnya pada tahun 1940 menunjukkan bahwa sistem saraf mengandung berbagai mekanisme untuk menghasilkan pola aktivitas secara intrinsik, tanpa memerlukan stimulus eksternal.<ref name=Piccolino>{{Cite journal|author=Piccolino M |title=Fifty years of the Hodgkin-Huxley era |journal=Trends Neurosci. |volume=25 |issue=11 |pages=552–3 |year=2002 |month=November |pmid=12392928 |doi= 10.1016/S0166-2236(02)02276-2|url=}}</ref> Neuron-neuron ditemukan mampu memproduksi rangkaian potensial aksi reguler, atau rangkaian ledakan (''sequences of bursts''), bahkan dalam isolasi penuh.<ref name=Johnston>{{Cite book|title=Foundations of cellular neurophysiology |author=Johnston D, Wu SM |publisher=MIT Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-262-10053-3}}</ref> Ketika neuron aktif secara intrinsik terhubung dengan yang lain dalam sirkuit kompleks, kemungkinan penghasilan pola temporer yang lebih rumit menjadi jauh lebih besar.<ref name=Dayan/> Konsep modern memandang fungsi sistem saraf sebagian dalam kerangka rangkaian stimulus-respons, dan sebagian dalam kerangka pola aktivitas yang dihasilkan secara intrinsik — kedua jenis aktivitas berinteraksi dengan yang lain untuk menggenerasikan tingkah laku berulang-ulang.<ref name=Simmons>{{Cite book|title=Nerve cells and animal behaviour |chapter=Ch 1.: Introduction |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-62726-9 |author=Simmons PJ, Young D}}</ref>
Baris 175:
<ref name=Azevedo>{{Cite journal|author=Azevedo FA, Carvalho LR, Grinberg LT, ''et al.'' |title=Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain |journal=J. Comp. Neurol. |volume=513 |pages=532–41 |year=2009 |pmid=19226510 |doi=10.1002/cne.21974 |issue=5}}</ref>
 
<ref name=Columbia>{{cite encyclopedia | title = Nervous System| encyclopedia = Columbia Encyclopedia| volume =| pages =| publisher = Columbia University Press| date = | id = | accessdate = 4/1/08}}</ref>
 
<ref name=Balavoine>{{Cite journal| author=Balavoine G| title=The segmented Urbilateria: A testable scenario| journal= Int Comp Biology| year=2003| volume=43| issue=1| pages=137–47| url=http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/43/1/137| doi=10.1093/icb/43.1.137}}</ref>
 
<ref name=Bourlat>{{Cite journal|author=Bourlat SJ, Juliusdottir T, Lowe CJ, ''et al.'' |title=Deuterostome phylogeny reveals monophyletic chordates and the new phylum Xenoturbellida |journal=Nature |volume=444 |issue=7115 |pages=85–8 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17051155 |doi=10.1038/nature05241 |url=}}</ref>
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<ref name=Jacobs>{{Cite journal|title=Evolution of sensory structures in basal metazoa |journal=Integr Comp Biol |volume=47|issue=5 |year=2007 |pages=712–723 |doi=10.1093/icb/icm094 |url=http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/47/5/712 |author=Jacobs DK1, Nakanishi N, Yuan D, ''et al.'' |pmid=21669752}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh2>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 2: Nerve cells and behavior |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh4>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 4: The cytology of neurons |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh9>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 9: Propagated signaling: the action potential |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh10>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 10: Overview of synaptic transmission |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh11>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 11: Signaling at the nerve-muscle synapse |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh15>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 15: Neurotransmitters |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh17>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 17: The anatomical organization of the central nervous system |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh21>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 21: Coding of sensory information |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh25>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 25: Constructing the visual image |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh36>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 36: Spinal reflexes |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh38>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 38: Voluntary movement |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh39>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 39: The control of gaze |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh52>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 52: The induction and patterning of the nervous system |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=KandelCh53>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 53: The formation and survival of nerve cells |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref>
 
<ref name=Hormuzdi>{{Cite journal|author=Hormuzdi SG, Filippov MA, Mitropoulou G, ''et al.'' |title=Electrical synapses: a dynamic signaling system that shapes the activity of neuronal networks |journal=Biochim. Biophys. Acta |volume=1662 |pages=113–37 |year=2004 |pmid=15033583 |doi=10.1016/j.bbamem.2003.10.023 |issue=1–2}}</ref>
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<ref name=Lichtneckert>{{Cite journal|author=Lichtneckert R, Reichert H |title=Insights into the urbilaterian brain: conserved genetic patterning mechanisms in insect and vertebrate brain development |journal=Heredity |volume=94 |issue=5 |pages=465–77 |year=2005 |month=May |pmid=15770230 |doi=10.1038/sj.hdy.6800664 |url=}}</ref>
 
<ref name=McCullochPitts>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/BF02478259 |title=A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity |year=1943 |journal=Bull. Math. Biophys. |volume=5|issue=4 |pages=115–133| author=McCulloch WS, Pitts W}}</ref>
 
<ref name=Purves15>{{Cite book| author = Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, Hall WC, LaMantia A-S, McNamara JO, White LE| title=Neuroscience. 4th ed. | publisher = Sinauer Associates | pages=15–16 | year=2008}}</ref>
 
<ref name=Ruppert>{{Cite book| author=Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD| title=Invertebrate Zoology | publisher=Brooks / Cole| edition=7| isbn=0-03-025982-7| year=2004| pages=111–124}}</ref>
 
<ref name=Sakarya>{{Cite journal|author=Sakarya O, Armstrong KA, Adamska M, ''et al.''|editor1-last=Vosshall|editor1-first=Leslie |title=A post-synaptic scaffold at the origin of the animal kingdom |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=e506 |year=2007 |pmid=17551586 |pmc=1876816 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000506}}</ref>
Baris 231:
<ref name=SanesCh1>{{Cite book|title=Development of the Nervous System |chapter=Ch. 1, ''Neural induction'' |publisher=Elsevier Academic Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-12-618621-5 |author=Sanes DH, Reh TH, Harris WA}}</ref>
 
<ref name=Strata>{{Cite journal|title= Dale's principle|journal=Brain Res. Bull. |year=1999 |volume=50 |pages=349–50 |pmid=10643431| doi=10.1016/S0361-9230(99)00100-8|author=Strata P, Harvey R |issue= 5–6}}</ref>
 
<ref name=Wormbook>{{Cite web|title=Wormbook: Specification of the nervous system |url=http://www.wormbook.org/chapters/www_specnervsys/specnervsys.html}}</ref>
 
<ref name=Zhu>{{Cite journal|author= Zhu B, Pennack JA, McQuilton P, Forero MG, Mizuguchi K, Sutcliffe B, Gu CJ, Fenton JC, Hidalgo A|editor1-last= Bate|editor1-first= Michael | title= Drosophila neurotrophins reveal a common mechanism for nervous system formation |journal= PLoS Biol |volume=6 |issue=11|pages=e284 |year=2008 |month=Nov |pmid=19018662 |pmc=2586362 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0060284 |url=http://scivee.tv/node/8389}}</ref>
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