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[[en:User:Rochelimit]]
=Perunggu ritual Cina=
[[File:MET DP219959.jpg|thumb|300px|Berbagai wadah anggur di altar Cina dari Dinasti Zhou Barat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/76974|title=Altar Set {{!}} China {{!}} Shang dynasty–Western Zhou dynasty (1046–771 B.C.) {{!}} The Met|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum|access-date=2017-11-19}}</ref>]]
Sets of '''ritual bronzes''' are the most impressive surviving objects from the [[Chinese Bronze Age]]. During the [[Shang dynasty]], China became one of the most skilled bronze-working civilizations in the ancient world, as people heated, melted, and cast metal to making cooking utensils, tools, weapons, and other household items. Modern archaeologists see such preservation of how the ancient Chinese lived by interpreting from lacquer paintings on wood which helped preserve ancient Chinese bronze artifacts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=All About China: Stories, Songs, Crafts and More for Kids |last=Branscombe |first=Allison |date=November 21, 2014 |isbn=978-0804841214}}</ref> Being from around 1650 BCE, these elaborately decorated vessels were deposited as [[grave goods]] in the tombs of royalty and the nobility, and were evidently produced in very large numbers, with documented excavations finding over 200 pieces in a single royal tomb. They were produced for an individual to use in ritual offerings of food and drink to his ancestors in family temples or ceremonial halls over tombs, or rather ritual banquets in which both living and dead members of a family participated; early literary records speak of these. On the death of the owner they would be placed in his tomb, so that he could continue to pay his respects in the afterlife; other examples were cast specifically as grave goods.<ref>Rawson, 44-60</ref>
The ritual bronzes were probably not used for normal eating and drinking; they represent larger, more elaborate versions of the types of vessels used for this, and made in precious materials. Apart from table vessels, weapons and some other objects were made in special ritual forms. Another class of ritual objects are those, also including weapons, made in [[jade]], which was probably the most highly valued of all, and which had been long used for ritual tools and weapons, since about 4,500 BCE.<ref>Rawson, 44-60</ref>
At least initially, the production of bronze was probably controlled by the ruler, who gave unformed metal to his nobility as a sign of favour.<ref>Rawson, 33-34</ref>
==Usage==
Bronzes ({{zh|s=青铜器 |t=青銅器 |p=qīng tóng qì |w=ch'ing t'ong ch'i}}) are some of the most important pieces of ancient [[Chinese art]], warranting an entire separate catalogue in the Imperial art collections. The Chinese Bronze Age began in the [[Xia Dynasty]] (ca. 2070 – ca. 1600 BC), and bronze ritual containers form the bulk of collections of Chinese antiquities, reaching its zenith during the [[Shang Dynasty]] (1600–1046 BC) and the early part of the [[Zhou Dynasty]] (1045–256 BC).
The majority of surviving Chinese ancient bronze artefacts are ritual forms rather than their equivalents made for practical use, either as tools or weapons. Weapons like daggers and axes had a sacrificial meaning, symbolizing the heavenly power of the ruler. The strong religious associations of bronze objects brought up a great number of vessel types and shapes which became regarded as classic and totemic and were copied, often in other media such as [[Chinese porcelain]], throughout subsequent periods of [[Chinese art]].
The ritual books of old China minutely describe who was allowed to use what kinds of sacrificial vessels and how much. The king of Zhou used 9 [[Ding_(vessel)|ding]]s and 8 [[Gui_(vessel)|gui]] vessels, a duke was allowed to use 7 dings and 6 guis, a baron could use 5 dings and 3 guis, a nobleman was allowed to use 3 dings and 2 guis. Turning to actual archaeological finds, the [[tomb of Fu Hao]], an unusually powerful Shang queen, contained her set of ritual vessels, numbering over two hundred, which are also far larger than the twenty-four vessels in the tomb of a contemporary nobleman. Her higher status would have been clear not only to her contemporaries, but also, it was believed, to her ancestors and other spirits.<ref>Rawson, 33</ref> Many of the pieces were cast with inscriptions using the posthumous form of her name, indicating there were made especially for burial in the tomb.<ref>[http://www.nga.gov/education/chinatp_fu.shtm "Excavations at the Tomb of Fu Hao"], accessed August 4, 2007, [[National Gallery of Art]], Washington</ref>
==Classification of pieces in the Imperial collection==
The appreciation, creation and collection of Chinese bronzes as pieces of art and not as ritual items began in the [[Song dynasty]] and reached its zenith in the [[Qing dynasty]] during the reign of the [[Qianlong Emperor]], whose massive collection is recorded in the catalogues known as the ''[[Xiqing gujian]]'' and the ''Xiqing jijian'' (西清繼鑑). Within those two catalogues, the bronzeware is categorized according to use:
*Sacrificial vessels (祭器, jìqì),
*Wine vessels (酒器, jiǔqì),
*Food vessels (食器, shíqì),
*Water vessels (水器, shuǐqì),
*Musical instruments (樂器, yuèqì),
*Weapons (兵器, bīngqì),
*Measuring containers (量器, liángqì),
*Ancient money (錢幣, qiánbì), and
*Miscellaneous (雜器, záqì).
The most highly prized are generally the sacrificial and wine vessels, which form the majority of most collections. Often these vessels are elaborately decorated with ''[[taotie]]'' designs.
==See also==
* [[History of Chinese archaeology]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References==
*[[Jessica Rawson|Rawson, Jessica]] (ed). ''The British Museum Book of Chinese Art'', 2007 (2nd edn), British Museum Press, {{ISBN|9780714124469}}
*Sickman, Laurence, in: Sickman L & Soper A, "The Art and Architecture of China", Pelican History of Art, 3rd ed 1971, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), LOC 70-125675
*[http://www.xajq.com/qtwh.php ''Xi'an Jiaqiang'' (in Chinese)]
*{{cite book|title=[[Xiqing Gujian]] (西清古鑒)|location=China|year=1749–1755}}
==Further reading==
*{{cite book | author= Fong, Wen (ed.) | title=The great bronze age of China: an exhibition from the People's Republic of China |url=http://cdm16028.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/107906 | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1980 | isbn=0870992260}}
*https://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/pdf_publications/pdf/ancientmetals2.pdf Chinese Bronzes: Casting, Finishing, Patination, and Corrosion
*http://www.academia.edu/3459636/The_Intersection_of_Past_And_Present_The_Qianlong_Emperor_and_His_Ancient_Bronzes
==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110718093649/http://db1x.sinica.edu.tw/caat/caat_rptcaatc.php?_op=%3FSUBJECT_ID%3A300265801 ritual vessels] from AAT-Taiwan
*[http://arcade.nyarc.org/search~S6/?searchtype=X&searcharg=Chinese+bronzes&searchscope=6&sortdropdown=-&SORT=DZ&extended=0&SUBMIT=Search&searchlimits=&searchorigarg=Xpicasso%26SORT%3DD Frick Collection ARCADE]
{{Chinese bronzeware}}
[[Kategori:Cina]]
[[Kategori:Zaman Perunggu]]
Category:Chinese art|Bronzes]]
[[Category:Chinese bronzeware|*]]
[[Category:Chinese iconography]]
[[Category:Chinese inventions]]
[[Category:Bronze Age art]]
[[Category:Bronze Age in China]]
Kumpulan perunggu ritual adalah objek bertahan paling mengesankan dari Zaman Perunggu China. Selama dinasti Shang, Cina menjadi salah satu peradaban perunggu yang paling terampil di dunia kuno, karena orang memanaskan, meleleh, dan melemparkan logam untuk membuat peralatan masak, peralatan, senjata, dan barang-barang rumah tangga lainnya. Arkeolog modern melihat pelestarian seperti bagaimana orang Tionghoa kuno hidup dengan menafsirkan dari lukisan pernis pada kayu yang membantu melestarikan artefak perunggu China kuno. [2] Berawal dari sekitar tahun 1650 SM, kapal-kapal yang didekorasi dengan rumit ini disimpan sebagai barang-barang muram di makam bangsawan dan bangsawan, dan ternyata diproduksi dalam jumlah sangat besar, dengan penggalian yang terdokumentasi menemukan lebih dari 200 buah di sebuah makam kerajaan tunggal. Mereka diproduksi bagi seorang individu untuk digunakan dalam persembahan ritual makanan dan minuman kepada nenek moyangnya di kuil keluarga atau ruang seremonial di atas makam, atau lebih tepatnya perjamuan ritual dimana anggota keluarga yang tinggal dan yang sudah meninggal berpartisipasi; catatan sastra awal berbicara tentang ini. Pada kematian pemilik mereka akan ditempatkan di makamnya, sehingga dia dapat terus memberi penghormatan di akhirat; Contoh lain dilemparkan secara khusus sebagai barang makam. [3]
Perunggu ritual mungkin tidak digunakan untuk makan dan minum normal; mereka mewakili versi kapal jenis yang lebih besar dan lebih terperinci yang digunakan untuk ini, dan dibuat dengan bahan berharga. Selain kapal meja, senjata dan beberapa benda lainnya dibuat dalam bentuk ritual khusus. Kelas benda ritual lainnya adalah benda-benda itu, termasuk juga senjata, yang dibuat di giok, yang mungkin merupakan barang yang paling bernilai tinggi, dan yang telah lama digunakan untuk alat dan senjata ritual, sejak sekitar 4.500 SM. [4]
Paling tidak pada awalnya, produksi perunggu mungkin dikendalikan oleh penguasa, yang memberi logam yang tidak terbentuk pada bangsawannya sebagai tanda dukungan. [5]
Penggunaan [sunting | sunting sumber]
Perunggu (Hanzi Sederhana: 青铜器; Hanzi Tradisional: 青銅器; Pinyin: qīng tóng qì; Wade-Giles: ch'ing t'ong ch'i) adalah beberapa bagian paling penting dari seni Cina kuno, yang menjamin keseluruhan katalog terpisah di koleksi seni Kekaisaran. Zaman Perunggu China dimulai pada Dinasti Xia (sekitar 2070 - sekitar 1600 SM), dan wadah ritual perunggu membentuk sebagian besar koleksi barang antik Cina, mencapai puncaknya selama Dinasti Shang (1600-1046 SM) dan bagian awal dari Dinasti Zhou (1045-256 SM).
Mayoritas artefak perunggu kuno China yang masih ada adalah bentuk ritual daripada padanan mereka yang dibuat untuk penggunaan praktis, baik sebagai alat atau senjata. Senjata seperti belati dan sumbu memiliki makna pengorbanan, yang melambangkan kekuatan surgawi penguasa. Asosiasi religius objek perunggu yang kuat membawa sejumlah besar jenis dan bentuk kapal yang dianggap klasik dan totem dan disalin, seringkali di media lain seperti porselen Cina, sepanjang periode seni China berikutnya.
Buku-buku ritual orang Tiongkok kuno dengan teliti menggambarkan siapa yang diizinkan menggunakan jenis-jenis kapal kurban dan berapa banyak. Raja Zhou menggunakan 9 dings dan 8 kapal gui, seorang duke diizinkan menggunakan 7 dings dan 6 guis, sebuah baron dapat menggunakan 5 sen dan 3 guis, seorang bangsawan diizinkan untuk menggunakan 3 sen dan 2 guis. Beralih ke temuan arkeologi yang sebenarnya, makam Fu Hao, ratu Shang yang luar biasa kuat, berisi seperangkat kapal ritualnya, berjumlah lebih dari dua ratus, yang juga jauh lebih besar daripada dua puluh empat kapal di makam seorang bangsawan kontemporer. Statusnya yang lebih tinggi pasti tidak hanya terbatas pada orang-orang sezamannya, tapi juga diyakini oleh nenek moyangnya dan roh-roh lainnya. [6] Banyak dari potongan-potongan itu dilemparkan dengan tulisan-tulisan yang menggunakan bentuk anumerta namanya, yang menunjukkan bahwa ada pembuatan khusus untuk dimakamkan di dalam kuburan. [7]
=Seni lukis Rajasthani=
[[File:Nihâl Chand 001.jpg|thumb|220px|An 18th-century Rajput painting by the artist [[Nihâl Chand]].]]
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