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Baris 2:
| royal_title = [[Sultan]]
| border = imperial
| realm = [[Kesultanan Utsmaniyah|Utsmaniyah]]
| coatofarms = Osmanli-nisani.svg
| coatofarmssize =
Baris 9:
| caption = [[Suleiman I]] (1520–1566)
| first_monarch = [[Osman I|Osman Gazi]]
| first_monarch-type= Pemimpin pertama
| last_monarch = [[Mehmed VI]]
| last_monarch-type = Penguasa terakhir
| style = '''Sapaan''':<br>''Hünkarım'' (Baginda)<br>''Padişah efendim'' (Tuanku Kaisar)<br>''Sultanım'' (Sultanku)
| residence = *[[Istana Topkapı]] (1460an–1853)<br>*[[Istana Dolmabahçe]] (1853–1889; 1909-1922)<br>*[[Istana Yıldız]] <br>(1889–1909)
| appointer = [[Garis suksesi tahta Utsmaniyah|Turun-temurun]]
| began = 27 Juli 1299
| ended = 1 November 1922
Baris 18 ⟶ 20:
Para sultan [[Wangsa Utsmaniyah]] menguasai wilayah kekuasaan transkontinental yang sangat luas mulai dari tahun 1299 hingga 1922. Pada puncak kejayaannya, [[Kesultanan Utsmaniyah]] berkuasa mulai dari [[Hongaria]] hingga ke bagian utara [[Somalia]] di sebelah selatan, dan dari [[Aljazair]] di sebelah barat hingga [[Irak]] di sebelah timur. Ibukotanya mula-mula adalah [[Bursa]] di [[Anatolia]], kemudian dipindahkan ke [[Edirne]] pada tahun 1366 dan ke [[Konstantinopel]] atau [[Istanbul]] pada tahun 1453 setelah [[Kejatuhan Konstantinopel]] [[Kekaisaran Bizantium]]<ref>[[#Sta01|Stavrides 2001]], p. 21</ref>
<!--The Ottoman Empire's [[Rise of the Ottoman Empire|early years]] have been the subject of varying narratives due to the difficulty of discerning fact from legend; nevertheless, most modern scholars agree that the empire came into existence around 1299 and that its first ruler was [[Osman I]] [[Khan (title)|Khan]] (leader) of the [[Kayı tribe]] of the [[Oghuz Turks]].<ref>[[#Gla96|Glazer 1996]], "The Ottoman Empire"</ref> The Ottoman Dynasty he founded was to endure for six centuries through the reigns of 36 sultans. The Ottoman Empire disappeared as a result of the defeat of the [[Central Powers]] with whom it had allied itself during [[World War I]]. The [[Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|partitioning of the empire]] by the victorious [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] and the ensuing [[Turkish War of Independence]] led to the birth of the modern [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]].<ref>[[#Gla96|Glazer 1996]], "War of Independence"</ref>--><ref>[[#Qua05|Quataert 2005]], p. 91</ref> Pada tahun 1617, hukum pergantian keturunan dalam Kesultanan ini diubah dari "siapa yang kuat akan menang" menjadi suatu sistem yang didasarkan atas tingkat senioritas ''agnatik'' (''ekberiyet''), yaitu tahta akan diteruskan oleh laki-laki tertua dalam keluarga. Ini menyebabkan sejak abad ke-17 sultan yang meninggal jarang digantikan oleh putranya, tetapi biasanya oleh seorang paman atau saudara laki-laki.<ref>[[#Qua05|Quataert 2005]], p. 92</ref> Sistem "senioritas agnatik" (''agnatic seniority'') dipertahankan sampai pembubaran kesultanan, meskipun pada abad ke-19 ada usaha yang gagal untuk mengganti dengan sistem "primogeniture" (keturunan tertua).<ref>[[#Kar05|Karateke 2005]], pp. 37–54</ref>
 
== Status ==
[[Kesultanan Utsmaniyah]] adalah monarki mutlak pada hampir sepanjang sejarahnya. Pemimpin Utsmaniyah berada di puncak hierarki dan sebagai pemimpin politik, militer, kehakiman, sosial, dan keagamaan yang tercermin dalam berbagai gelar yang disandangnya. Secara teori, pemimpin Utsmaniyah hanya bertanggung jawab kepada Allah dan syariat-Nya yang mana dia adalah pelaksana dari syariat tersebut.
 
Meski pemimpin Utsmaniyah secara teori adalah pemimpin absolut, pada kenyataannya, pengaruhnya terbatas pada beberapa hal. Keputusannya sangat dipengaruhi oleh [[Wangsa Utsmaniyah|anggota penting dinasti]], para pejabat, pihak militer, dan pemuka agama.<ref name="Ottoman Institutions">[[#Gla96|Glazer 1996]], "Ottoman Institutions"</ref> Mulai akhir abad keenam belas, sebagian besar kewenangan pemimpin Utsmaniyah dalam pemerintahan mulai dialihkan kepada wazir agung (setara perdana menteri). Para wanita dalam harem istana, biasanya ibu suri ([[valide sultan]]) atau permaisuri ([[haseki sultan]]) juga menjadi salah satu pihak paling berpengaruh dalam memandu kebijakan pemimpin Utsmaniyah. Pada masa yang disebut sebagai [[Kesultanan Wanita]], para wanita harem bahkan memiliki pengaruh sangat besar dalam pemerintahan dan menjadi penguasa dari balik tirai.<ref>{{cite web | first = Leslie | last = Peirce | authorlink = Leslie P. Peirce | title = The sultanate of women | url = http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/e-h/harem.html | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071203045546/http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/e-h/harem.html | publisher = [[Channel 4]] | archivedate = 2007-12-03 | accessdate = 2009-04-18}}</ref>
 
== Gelar ==
Para pemimpin Utsmaniyah menyandang berbagai gelar yang tiap-tiap gelar memiliki makna tersendiri. Beberapa gelar tersebut antara lain 'sultan', 'khan', 'padişah', dan 'khalifah'.
 
=== Sebagai kepala negara ===
[[Berkas:Imperial_standard_of_the_Ottoman_Sultan.svg|kiri|jmpl|240x240px|BenderaStandard Kesultanan Utsmaniyah]]▼
Meskipun daftar Sultan Utsmaniyah selalu dimulai dari Osman I yang merupakan bapak dari [[Wangsa Utsmaniyah]], gelar sultan baru secara resmi disandangdigunakan pada masa Murad I, cucu Osman, yang berkuasa 1362 sampai 1389. Dua pemimpin Utsmaniyah sebelumnya, Osman dan Orhan, menggunakan gelar ''bey'', gelar Turki yang dapat disejajarkan dengan adipati.
 
Di Indonesia dan Barat, pemimpin Utsmaniyah lebih dikenal dengan 'sultan'. Sultan adalah gelar pemimpin Islam yang berasal dari bahasa Arab yang bermakna "kewenangan" atau "kekuatan". Gelar ini mulai digunakan pada masa [[Kekhalifahan Abbasiyah]] dan perlahan digunakan untuk berbagai pemimpin Muslim berdaulat.Kedudukan gelar sultan lebih tinggi dari 'amir' dan tidak dapat dibandingkan dengan 'malik', gelar bahasa Arab untuk [[Raja (gelar)|raja]]. Sejak abad keenam belas, gelar sultan tidak hanya digunakan oleh pemimpin Kesultanan Utsmaniyah, tetapi juga semua anggota [[Wangsa Utsmaniyah]], juga permaisuri dan ibu suri, dengan laki-laki menggunakan gelar sultan di depan namanya, sedangkan wanita di belakang namanya. Misalnya, Şehzade Sultan Mehmed dan Mihrimah Sultan, putra dan putri Sultan Suleiman Al Qanuni. Penggunaan ini menegaskan konsep Utsmani terkait kekuasaan sebagai kewenangan keluarga.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire|last = Peirce|first = Leslie P.|publisher = Oxford University Press, Inc.|year = 1993|isbn = 0-19-507673-7|location = New York|pages = }}</ref>
 
Bersama sultan, para pemimpin Utsmaniyah juga menggunakan gelar khan di belakang namanya (misal, Sultan Suleiman Khan). Khan adalah gelar bagi pemimpin bangsa Turki yang berasal dari Asia Tengah. Salah satu tokoh terkenal yang juga menggunakan gelar ini adalah [[Jengis Khan]]. Penggunaan gelar ini menunjukkan keterikatan Utsmaniyah dengan para pendahulu mereka yang berasal dari Asia Tengah.<ref name=":0"></ref>
Gelar yang sering digunakan di kalangan masyarakat Utsmaniyah sendiri adalah ''padişah'' (پادشاه) yang berarti '[[kaisar]]'. Hal ini sebagai pernyataan bahwa status Utsmaniyah berada di atas kerajaan sebagaimana status kaisar berada di atas raja. Gelar ini diadopsi dari bahasa Persia. Gelar ini mulai digunakan oleh Sultan [[Mehmed II]].▼
 
▲Gelar yang sering digunakan di kalangan masyarakat Utsmaniyah sendiri untuk merujuk pemimpin mereka adalah ''padişah'' (پادشاه)<ref>{{cite magazine | last = M'Gregor | first = J. |date=July 1854 | title = The Race, Religions, and Government of the Ottoman Empire |magazine=The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science, and Art | volume = 32 |page=376 | publisher = Leavitt, Trow, & Co. | location = New York | oclc = 6298914 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=1MYRAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc#PPA376,M1 | accessdate = 2009-04-25}}</ref> yang berarti '[[kaisar]]'. Hal ini sebagai pernyataan bahwa status Utsmaniyah berada di atas kerajaan sebagaimana status kaisar berada di atas raja. Gelar ini diadopsi dari bahasa Persia. Gelar inidan mulai digunakan olehpada masa Sultan [[Mehmed II]].
 
Setelah penaklukan Konstantinopel pada 1453, Sultan Mehmed II juga menyandang gelar ''Kaysar-i-Rûm'' atau 'Kaisar Romawi'. Gelar ini menyatakan bahwa para pemimpin Utsmaniyah adalah pewaris dari Kekaisaran Romawi. Sultan Mehmed II juga menyatakan dirinya sebagai pelindung bagi Gereja Ortodoks.
 
Semua gelar kepala negara ini terus dipegang pemimpin Wangsa Utsmaniyah sampai dibubarkannya [[Kesultanan Utsmaniyah]] pada tahun 1922.
 
=== Sebagai pemimpin dunia Islam ===
Pemimpin Utsmaniyah juga menyandang gelar [[khalifah]] yang merupakan gelar bagi pemimpin dunia Islam. Gelar ini mulai diklaim oleh Murad I, meski pada saat itu Wangsa Abbasiyah yang berada dalam perlindungan Kesultanan Mamluk Mesir masih menyandang gelar khalifah secara resmi. Setelah penaklukan Kesultanan Mamluk oleh Utsmaniyah pada tahun 1517 di masa Sultan Selim I, Wangsa Abbasiyah menyerahkan gelar khalifah kepada pemimpin Utsmaniyah. Dengan ini, pemimpin Utsmaniyah secara simbolis berperan sebagai pemimpin dunia Islam, meski bukan pemimpin dalam artian kepala negara seluruh dunia Islam karena semua negara Islam memiliki pemimpin berdaulatnya sendiri.
 
Pada keberjalanannya, gelar khalifah tidak digunakan oleh pemimpin Utsmaniyah hampir selama dua abad sampai Utsmaniyah kalah perang dengan [[Kekaisaran Rusia]] yang saat itu dipimpin oleh [[Yekaterina II dari Rusia|Maharani Yekaterina II]]. Dalam Perjanjian Küçük Kaynarca (1774) antara Utsmaniyah dengan Rusia, pemimpin Utsmaniyah kemudian menggunakan statusnya sebagai khalifah (bukan sebagai sultan) untuk menegaskan kepemimpinan relijiusnya atas umat Muslim di Rusia.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | editor = Glassé, Cyril | encyclopedia = The New Encyclopedia of Islam | title = Ottomans | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&printsec=frontcover#PPA349,M1 | accessdate = 2009-05-02 | year = 2003 | publisher = AltaMira Press | location = Walnut Creek, CA | isbn = 978-0-7591-0190-6 | oclc = 52611080 | pages = 349–351}}</ref> Ini adalah pertama kalinya di masa Utsmaniyah, gelar khalifah digunakan di luar batas Kesultanan Utsmaniyah dan diakui oleh pihak Eropa.<ref name="Cambridge">{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Islam I: The Central Islamic Lands |year=1970 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |language=tr}}</ref> Gelar ini lebih sering digunakan dan lebih nyata pengaruhnya pada masa Sultan Abdul Hamid II yang berusaha menyatukan dunia Islam untuk melawan pengaruh Barat yang semakin menguat. Dengan statusnya sebagai khalifah, Abdul Hamid II meminta pihak [[Kesultanan Sulu]] untuk tunduk dengan kekuasaan Amerika demi menghindari konflik yang lebih besar antara Barat dan Islam.<ref name="Akyol2011">{{cite book|author=Mustafa Akyol|title=Islam without Extremes: A Muslim Case for Liberty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2mRXt7NtFhEC&pg=PA159&dq=Straus+Sulu+Ottoman&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cmQZU8hTpvDRAebrgJgM&ved=0CEQQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Straus%20Sulu%20Ottoman&f=false|date=18 July 2011|publisher=W. W. Norton|isbn=978-0-393-07086-6|pages=159–}}</ref> Kerjasama yang tercipta antara angkatan bersenjata Amerika dan Kesultanan Sulu tidak lain adalah bujukan Khalifah Utsmaniyah kepada pihak Kesultanan Sulu.<ref name="Moskin2013">{{cite book|author=J. Robert Moskin|title=American Statecraft: The Story of the U.S. Foreign Service|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pc5FAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA204&dq=Straus+Sulu+Ottoman&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cmQZU8hTpvDRAebrgJgM&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Straus%20Sulu%20Ottoman&f=false|date=19 November 2013|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-1-250-03745-9|pages=204–}}</ref>
 
Setelah Kesultanan Utsmaniyah dibubarkan pada 1922, pemimpin [[Wangsa Utsmaniyah]] masih mempertahankan gelar khalifahnya selama dua tahun sampai kemudian lembaga kekhalifahan juga dibubarkan pada 1924. Dengan ini, Wangsa Utsmaniyah adalah keluarga besar terakhir yang menyandang gelar khalifah.
 
== Daftar sultan ==
▲[[Berkas:Imperial_standard_of_the_Ottoman_Sultan.svg|kiri|jmpl|240x240px|Bendera Kesultanan Utsmaniyah]]
Tabel di bawah ini berisi informasi para sultan Utsmaniyah, juga kalifah Utsmaniyah, diurutkan berdasarkan kronologi. [[Tughra]] adalah lambang atau tanda kaligrafi yang digunakan oleh para sultan Utsmaniyah yang dituliskan pada semua dokumen resmi dan uang koin, dan lebih melambangkan sang sultan daripada portret sang sultan. Kolom "Catatan" berisi informasi mengenai orangtua dan nasib tiap sultan. Bila pemerintahan seorang sultan tidak berakhir dengan kematian wajar, alasannya ditandai dengan cetak tebal.<!--For earlier rulers, there is usually a time gap between the moment a sultan's reign ended and the moment his successor was enthroned. This is because the Ottomans in that era practiced what historian Quataert has described as "[[survival of the fittest]], not eldest, son": when a sultan died, his sons had to fight each other for the throne until a victor emerged. Because of the infighting and numerous [[Fratricide|fratricides]] that occurred, a sultan's death date therefore did not always coincide with the accession date of his successor.-->
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:center;" border="1"
Baris 536 ⟶ 555:
atau
''Kesatuan [[Islam]])''</small>
| [[Berkas:Sultan Mehmed VI of the Ottoman Empire.jpg|80px|Potret Mehmed VI]]
|
| 4 Juli 1918
| 1 November 1922
Baris 551 ⟶ 570:
| [[Abd-ul-Mejid II]]<br /><small>''HALİFE''
''[[Kekhalifahan Utsmaniyah|(Khalifah Islam Utsmaniyah Terakhir)]]''</small>
| [[Berkas:Portrait ofCaliph AbdülmecidAbdulmecid II in Topkapı Saray Museum.jpg|80px|Potret Abd-ul-Mejid II]]
| 18 November 1922
| 3 Maret 1924
Baris 564 ⟶ 583:
== Lihat pula ==
* [[Kesultanan Utsmaniyah]]
* [[DinastiWangsa Utsmaniyah]] <!--
* [[List of Valide SultansSultan]]▼
*[[Line of succession to the Ottoman throne]]
*[[Ottoman Emperors family tree]]
*[[Ottoman family tree]] (more detailed)
*[[Tughra|Tuğra-Sultan's Signature]]
▲*[[List of Valide Sultans]]
*[[List of Ottoman Grand Viziers]]
*[[List of admirals in the Ottoman Empire]]
*[[List of Ottoman Kaptan Pashas]]
 
==Catatan penjelas==
<div class="references-small">
:'''a'''{{note label|Titles||1}}{{note label|Titles||2}}: The [[Ottoman titles|full style]] of the Ottoman ruler was complex, as it was composed of several titles and evolved over the centuries. The title of [[sultan]] was used continuously by all rulers almost from the beginning. However, because it was widespread in the Muslim world, the Ottomans quickly adopted variations of it to dissociate themselves from other Muslim rulers of lesser status. [[Murad I]], the third Ottoman monarch, styled himself ''sultan-i azam'' (the most exalted sultan) and ''hüdavendigar'' (emperor), titles used by the Anatolian [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuqs]] and the Mongol [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanids]] respectively. His son [[Bayezid I]] adopted the style ''Sultan of Rûm'', [[Rûm]] being an old islamic name for Anatolia. The combining of the Islamic and Central Asian heritages of the Ottomans led to the adoption of the title that became the standard designation of the Ottoman ruler: ''Sultan [Name] Khan''.<ref>[[#Pei93|Peirce 1993]], pp. 158–159</ref> Ironically, although the title of sultan is most often associated in the [[Western world]] with the Ottomans, people within Turkey generally use the title of ''[[padishah]]'' far more frequently when referring to rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty.<ref>{{cite journal | last = M'Gregor | first = J. | year = 1854 | month = July | title = The Race, Religions, and Government of the Ottoman Empire | journal = The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science, and Art | volume = 32 | pages = p. 376 | publisher = Leavitt, Trow, & Co. | location = New York | oclc = 6298914 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=1MYRAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc#PPA376,M1 | accessdate = 2009-04-25}}</ref> The full style of the Ottoman sultan once the empire's frontiers had stabilized became:<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.theottomans.org/english/family/index.asp | title = The Ottomans History | accessdate = 2009-02-06 | last = Ozgen | first = Korkut | publisher = TheOttomans.org | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080111092617/http://www.theottomans.org/english/family/index.asp | archivedate = 2008-01-11}}</ref><blockquote>"Sovereign of [[Ottoman Dynasty|The Osman Family]], [[Sultan of Sultans|Sultan es Selatin]] (Sultan of Sultans), [[Khagan|Khakhan]] (Khan of the Khans), [[Ottoman Caliphate|Caliph of the Faithful]], Servant of the Cities of [[Mecca]], [[Medina]] and [[Jerusalem#Ottoman rule|Kouds]] (Jerusalem), [[Padishah]] of The Three Cities of [[History of Istanbul#Ottoman Empire|Istanbul]] (Constantinople), [[Edirne]] (Adrianople) and [[Bursa]], and of the Cities of [[Damascus#The Ottoman conquest|Châm]] (Damascus) and [[Egypt Province, Ottoman Empire|Misr]] (Egypt), of all [[Azerbaijan]], of Mägris, of [[Barqah|Barkah]], of [[Kairouan]], of [[Aleppo|Alep]], of [[History of Iraq#Ottoman Iraq and Mamluk rule|Iraq]], of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] and of [[Ajim]], of [[Basra Vilayet|Basra]], of [[Al-Hasa|El Hasa]], of Dilen, of [[Ar-Raqqah|Raka]], of [[Mosul Vilayet|Mosul]], of [[Parthia]], of [[Diyâr-ı Bekr Vilayet|Diyarbakir]], of [[Cilicia#Ottoman Empire|Cilicia]], of the [[Wilayah|Vilayets]] of [[Erzurum Vilayet|Erzurum]], of [[Sivas Vilayet|Sivas]], of [[Adana Vilayet|Adana]], of [[Karaman Vilayet|Karaman]], of [[Van Vilayet|Van]], of Barbaria, of [[Habesh|Habech]] (Abyssinia), of [[History of Ottoman era Tunisia|Tunisia]], of [[Tripolitania Vilayet|Tyrabolos]] (Tripoli), of [[Ottoman Syria|Châm]] (Syria), of [[Cyprus under the Ottoman Empire|Kybris]] (Cyprus), of [[Rhodes]], of [[History of Crete#Venetian and Ottoman Crete|Candia]] (Crete), of the Vilayet of [[Morea]] (Peloponnese), of [[Mediterranean Sea|Ak Deniz]] (Mediterranean Sea), of [[Black Sea|Kara Deniz]] (Black Sea), of [[Anatolia Province, Ottoman Empire|Anatolia]], of [[Rumelia]] (the European part of the Empire), of [[Baghdad Province, Ottoman Empire|Bagdad]], of [[Kurdistan]], of [[Ottoman Greece|Greece]], of [[Turkestan]], of [[Tartary]], of [[Circassia]], of the two regions of [[Kabardino-Balkaria|Kabarda]], of [[History of Georgia (country)#Ottoman and Persian domination|Gorjestan]] (Georgia), of the plain of [[Kipchaks|Kypshak]], of the whole country of the [[Tatars|Tartars]], of [[Feodosiya#Kefe|Kefa]] (Feodosiya) and of all the neighbouring countries, of [[Bosnia Province, Ottoman Empire|Bosnia and dependancies]], of the City of [[Belgrade#Turkish conquest and Austrian invasions|Belgrade]], of the [[History of Ottoman Serbia|Vilayet of Serf]] (Serbia), with [[List of fortresses in Serbia|all the castles]] and [[List of cities in Serbia|cities]], of all the [[History of Ottoman Albania|Arnaut Vilayet]] (Albania), of all [[Wallachia|Iflak]] (Wallachia) and [[Moldavia|Bogdania]] (Moldavia), as well as [[Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire#List|all the dependancies and borders]], and [[List of Ottoman Empire territories|many others countries and cities]]"</blockquote>
:'''b'''{{note|Caliphate}}: The [[Ottoman Caliphate]] was one of the most important positions held by rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty. The caliphate symbolized their spiritual power, whereas the sultanate represented their temporal power. According to Ottoman [[historiography]], [[Selim I]] acquired the title of caliph during his conquest of Egypt in 1517, after the last [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] in Cairo, [[Al-Mutawakkil III]], relinquished the caliphate to him. However, the general consensus among modern scholars is that this transference of the caliphate was a fabricated myth invented in the 18th century when the idea of an Ottoman Caliphate became useful to bolster waning military power. In fact, Ottoman rulers had used the title of caliph before the conquest of Egypt, as early as [[Murad I]]. It is currently agreed that the caliphate "disappeared" for two-and-a-half centuries, before being revived with the [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]], signed between the Ottoman Empire and [[Catherine II of Russia]] in 1774. The treaty was highly symbolic, since it marked the first international recognition of the Ottomans' claim to the caliphate. Although the treaty officialised the Ottoman Empire's loss of the [[Crimean Khanate]], it acknowledged the Ottoman caliph's continuing religious authority over [[Islam in Russia|Muslims in Russia]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | editor = Glassé, Cyril | encyclopedia = The New Encyclopedia of Islam | title = Ottomans | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&printsec=frontcover#PPA349,M1 | accessdate = 2009-05-02 | year = 2003 | publisher = AltaMira Press | location = Walnut Creek, CA | isbn = 9780759101906 | oclc = 52611080 | pages = 349–351}}</ref> From the 18th century onwards, Ottoman sultans increasingly emphasized their status as caliphs in order to stir [[Pan-Islamism|Pan-Islamist]] sentiments among the empire's Muslims in the face of encroaching European imperialism. When [[World War I]] broke out, the sultan/caliph issued a call for ''[[jihad]]'' in 1914 against the Ottoman Empire's [[Allies of World War I|Allied enemies]], vainly inciting the subjects of the [[French colonial empire|French]], [[British Empire|British]] and [[Russian Empire|Russian]] empires to revolt. [[Abd-ul-Hamid II]] was by far the Ottoman sultan who made the most use of his caliphal position, and was recognized as caliph by many Muslim heads of state, even as far away as [[Sumatra]].<ref>[[#Qua05|Quataert 2005]], pp. 83–85</ref> He had his claim to the title inserted into the [[Kanûn-ı Esâsî|1876 Constitution]] (Article 4).<ref name="Toprak">[[#Top81|Toprak 1981]], pp. 44–45</ref>
:'''c'''{{note label|Tughra||1}}{{note label|Tughra||2}}: [[Tughra|Tughras]] were used by 35 out of 36 Ottoman sultans, starting with [[Orhan I|Orhan]] in the 14th century, whose tughra has been found on two different documents. No tughra bearing the name of [[Osman I]], the founder of the empire, has ever been discovered, although a coin with the inscription "Osman bin Ertuğrul bin Gündüz Alp" has been identified.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.tugra.org/en/hakkinda.asp | title = About Tugra | accessdate = 2009-02-06 | last = Mensiz | first = Ercan | publisher = Tugra.org | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071025010127/http://www.tugra.org/en/hakkinda.asp | archivedate = 2007-10-25}}</ref> [[Abd-ul-Mejid II]], the last Ottoman caliph, also lacked a tughra of his own, since he did not serve as [[head of state]] (that position being held by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]], President of the newly founded Republic of Turkey) but as a mere religious [[figurehead]].
:'''d'''{{note|Interregnum}}: The [[Ottoman Interregnum]], also known as the Ottoman Triumvirate ({{Lang-tr|Fetret Devri}}), was a period of chaos in the Ottoman Empire which lasted from 1402 to 1413. It started following the defeat and capture of [[Bayezid I]] by the [[Turkic peoples|Turco-]][[Mongols|Mongol]] warlord [[Timur|Tamerlane]] at the [[Battle of Ankara]], which was fought on 20 July 1402. Bayezid's sons fought each other for over a decade, until [[Mehmed I]] emerged as the undisputed victor in 1413.<ref>[[#Sug93|Sugar 1993]], pp. 23–27</ref>
:'''e'''{{note|Dissolution}}: The [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] was a gradual process which started with the abolition of the sultanate and ended with that of the caliphate 16 months later. The sultanate was formally abolished on 1 November 1922. Sultan [[Mehmed VI]] fled to [[Malta]] on 17 November aboard the British warship ''[[HMS Malaya|Malaya]]''.<ref name="Mehmed VI"/> This event marked the end of the Ottoman ''Dynasty'', not of the Ottoman ''State'' nor of the [[Ottoman Caliphate]]. On 18 November, the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]] (TBMM) elected Mehmed VI's cousin [[Abd-ul-Mejid II]], the then crown prince, as caliph.<ref>[[#Asi92|As̜iroğlu 1992]], p. 54</ref> The official end of the Ottoman State was declared through the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] (24 July 1923), which recognized the new "[[Ankara]] government," and not the old Istanbul-based Ottoman government, as representing the rightful owner and successor state. The [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] was proclaimed by the TBMM on 29 October 1923, with [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]] as its first [[President of Turkey|President]].<ref>[[#Gla96|Glazer 1996]], "Table A. Chronology of Major Kemalist Reforms"</ref> Although Abd-ul-Mejid II was a [[figurehead]] lacking any political power, he remained in his position of caliph until the office of the caliphate was abolished by the TBMM on 3 March 1924.<ref name="Toprak"/> Mehmed VI later tried unsuccessfully to reinstall himself as caliph in the [[Hejaz]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Steffen | first = Dirk | editor = Tucker, Spencer | encyclopedia = World War I: Encyclopedia | title = Mehmed VI, Sultan | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=B1cMtKQP3P8C&printsec=frontcover#PRA2-PA779,M1 | accessdate = 2009-05-02 | year = 2005 | series = Volume | publisher = ABC-CLIO | volume = III: M–R | location = Santa Barbara, CA | isbn = 9781851094202 | oclc = 162287003 | page = 779}}</ref>
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