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Kedua teknik [[pencarian jalan]] dan metode konstruksi [[Cadik|kano cadik]] telah disimpan sebagai [[Rahasia dagang|rahasia asosiasi]], tetapi dalam kebangkitan modern atas keterampilan ini, teknik-teknik ini direkam dan diterbitkan.
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==History==
{{See also|Ancient Hawaii|Discovery and settlement of Hawaii}}
[[File:Polynesia.png|thumb|A projection of the [[Polynesian triangle]] on the globe.]] ▼Between about 3000 and 1000 BC speakers of Austronesian languages spread through the islands of [[Southeast Asia]] – almost certainly starting out from [[Taiwan]],<ref name="howe20069298">{{Citation |title=Vaka Moana: Voyages of the Ancestors – the discovery and settlement of the Pacific |last=Howe |first=K. R |year=2006 |publisher=David Bateman |location=Albany, Auckland |pages=92–98}}</ref> as tribes whose [[Taiwanese aborigines|natives]] were thought to have previously arrived from mainland South China about 8000 years ago – into the edges of western [[Micronesia]] and on into [[Melanesia]]. In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with a degree of certainty. In the mid-2nd millennium BC a distinctive culture appeared suddenly in north-west Melanesia, in the [[Bismarck Archipelago]], the chain of islands forming a great arch from [[New Britain]] to the [[Admiralty Islands]]. This culture, known as [[Lapita]], stands out in the Melanesian archeological record, with its large permanent villages on beach terraces along the coasts. Particularly characteristic of the Lapita culture is the making of pottery, including a great many vessels of varied shapes, some distinguished by fine patterns and motifs pressed into the clay. Within a mere three or four centuries between about 1300 and 900 BC, the Lapita culture spread 6000 km further to the east from the Bismarck Archipelago, until it reached as far as [[Tonga]] and [[Samoa]].{{sfn|Bellwood|1987|pp=45–65}} In this region, the distinctive Polynesian culture developed. The Polynesians are then believed to have spread eastward from the Samoan Islands into the Marquesas, the Society Islands, the Hawaiian Islands and Easter Island; and south to New Zealand. The pattern of settlement also extended to the north of Samoa to the Tuvaluan atolls, with [[Tuvalu]] providing a stepping stone to migration into the [[Polynesian outliers|Polynesian Outlier communities]] in [[Melanesia]] and [[Micronesia]].{{sfn|Bellwood|1987|pp=29, 54}}<ref name="Bayard">{{cite book |last1=Bayard|first1=D. T.|title=The Cultural Relationships of the Polynesian Outiers |year= 1976 |publisher=Otago University, Studies in Prehistoric Anthropology, Vol. 9}}</ref><ref name="Kirch">{{cite journal |last1=Kirch|first1=P. V.|title=The Polynesian Outliers: Continuity, change, and replacement |year= 1984 |volume=19 |issue=4 |journal=Journal of Pacific History |pages=224–238 |doi=10.1080/00223348408572496}}</ref>
==Sejarah==
==Navigational devices==
{{See also|Hawaii kuno|Penemuan dan pendudukan Hawaii}}
[[File:Polynesian navigation device showing directions of winds, waves and islands.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Polynesian navigation device showing directions of winds, waves and islands, c. 1904]] ▼▲[[File:Polynesia.png|thumb| ASebuah projection of theproyeksi [[ Polynesiansegitiga trianglePolynesia]] on thedi globedunia.]]
There are numerous traditional Polynesian devices used for navigating and/or teaching navigation. These include charts, spatial representations of islands and the conditions around them, and navigational instruments, such as those for measuring the elevation of celestial objects. They also include non-physical devices such as songs and stories for memorizing the properties of stars, islands, and navigational routes.
Sekitar tahun 3000 dan 1000 SM para penutur bahasa Austronesia berada tersebar di pulau-pulau [[Asia Tenggara]]; yang kemungkinannya berada dari [[Taiwan]],<ref name="howe20069298">{{Citation |title=Vaka Moana: Voyages of the Ancestors – the discovery and settlement of the Pacific |last=Howe |first=K. R |year=2006 |publisher=David Bateman |location=Albany, Auckland |pages=92–98}}</ref> sebagai suku dengan [[penduduk pribumi Taiwan|penduduk asli]] yang diperkirakan sebelumnya telah tiba dari daratan Cina Selatan sekitar 8000 tahun yang lalu – ke ujung barat [[Mikronesia]] dan kemudian menjadi [[Melanesia]]. Di dalam rekaman arkeologi terdapat jejak-jejak yang jelas atas peristiwa perluasan ini yang memungkinkan jalan yang perlu diikuti dan bertanggal dengan sebuah tingkat kepastian. Pada pertengahan milenium ke-2 SM sebuah budaya khas muncul tiba-tiba di barat laut Melanesia, di [[Kepulauan Bismarck]], yaitu sebuah rantai pulau yang membentuk lengkungan besar dari [[Britania Baru]] ke [[Kepulauan Admiralty]]. Budaya ini, yang dikenal sebagai [[Lapita]], menonjol dalam rekaman arkeologi Melanesia, dengan desa-desa permanennya yang besar di teras pantai di sepanjang pesisir. Karakteristik budaya Lapita yng khas adalah pembuatan tembikar, termasuk bejana yang sangat banyak dengan berbagai bentuk, yang beberapa diiantaranya dibedakan oleh pola-pola halus dan motif-motif yang dibentuk dari tanah liat. Dalam waktu tiga atau empat abad sekitar tahun 1300 hingga 900 SM, budaya Lapita menyebar 6000 km lebih ke timur dari Kepulauan Bismarck, sampai mencapai [[Tonga]] dan [[Samoa]].{{sfn|Bellwood|1987|pp=45–65}}
Di wilayah ini, budaya Polinesia yang khas telah berkembang. Polinesia kemudian diyakini telah menyebar ke timur dari Kepulauan Samoa ke Marquesas, Kepulauan Society, Kepulauan Hawaii dan Pulau Paskah; dan arah selatan ke Selandia Baru. Pola pemukiman juga diperluas ke arah utara Samoa ke atol Tuvaluan, dengan [[Tuvalu]] yang menyediakan batu loncatan dalam bermigrasi ke [[Polinesia|komunitas terpencil Polinesia]] di [[Melanesia]] dan [[Mikronesia] ]].{{sfn|Bellwood|1987|pp=29, 54}}<ref name="Bayard">{{cite book |last1=Bayard|first1=D. T.|title=The Cultural Relationships of the Polynesian Outiers |year= 1976 |publisher=Otago University, Studies in Prehistoric Anthropology, Vol. 9}}</ref><ref name="Kirch">{{cite journal |last1=Kirch|first1=P. V.|title=The Polynesian Outliers: Continuity, change, and replacement |year= 1984 |volume=19 |issue=4 |journal=Journal of Pacific History |pages=224–238 |doi=10.1080/00223348408572496}}</ref>
==Navigational techniques==
Polynesian navigators employed a whole range of techniques including use of the stars, the movement of ocean currents and wave patterns, the air and sea interference patterns caused by islands and [[atoll]]s, the flight of birds, the winds and the weather.<ref name="Gatty_1958">{{harvnb|Gatty|1958}}.</ref>
==Perangkat navigasi==
===Bird observation===
▲[[File:Polynesian navigation device showing directions of winds, waves and islands.jpg|thumb|right|200px| PolynesianPerangkat navigationnavigasi devicePolinesia showingyang directionsmenunjukkan ofarah windsangin, wavesombak-ombak anddan islandspulau-pulau, c.di sekitar tahun 1904]]
[[Harold Gatty]] suggested that long-distance Polynesian voyaging followed the seasonal paths of [[bird migration]]s. In "The Raft Book",<ref>"[http://blog.library.si.edu/tag/harold-gatty/ Be Your Own Navigator]," ''Smithsonian Libraries Unbound'', 11 February 2016.</ref> a survival guide he wrote for the U.S. military during World War II, Gatty outlined various Polynesian navigation techniques Allied sailors or aviators wrecked at sea could use to find their way to land. There are some references in their oral traditions to the flight of birds and some say that there were range marks onshore pointing to distant islands in line with the [[West Pacific Flyway]]. A voyage from Tahiti, the Tuamotus or the Cook Islands to New Zealand might have followed the migration of the [[long-tailed cuckoo]] (''Eudynamys taitensis'') just as the voyage from Tahiti to Hawai{{okina}}i would coincide with the track of the [[Pacific golden plover]] (''Pluvialis fulva'') and the [[bristle-thighed curlew]] (''Numenius tahitiensis''). It is also believed that Polynesians employed shore-sighting birds as did many seafaring peoples. One theory is that they would have taken a [[frigatebird]] (''Fregata'') with them. These birds refuse to land on the water as their feathers will become waterlogged making it impossible to fly. When the voyagers thought they were close to land they may have released the bird, which would either fly towards land or else return to the canoe.<ref name="Gatty_1958" />
Terdapat banyak perangkat Polinesia tradisional yang digunakan untuk navigasi dan/atau mengajar navigasi. Diantaranya termasuk grafik-grafik, representasi spasial pulau-pulau dan kondisi-kondisi di sekitar mereka, serta instrumen navigasi, seperti untuk mengukur ketinggian benda-benda langit. Perangkat-perangkat ini juga termasuk perangkat non-fisik seperti lagu-lagu dan cerita-cerita yang digunakan untuk menghafal sifat-sifat bintang, pulau, dan rute-rute navigasi.
===Navigation by the stars===
[[File:Mau-star-compass.png|thumb|A photograph of a recreation of the star compass of [[Mau Piailug]] depicted with shells on sand, with [[Satawalese]] (See [[Trukic languages]]) text labels, as described and translated by the [[Polynesian Voyaging Society]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/ike/hookele/star_compasses.html |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5rkR1hSvX?url=http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/ike/hookele/star_compasses.html |archive-date=5 August 2010 |title=Star Compasses |publisher=Polynesian Voyaging Society |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Shown here north-up. See annotations on Commons.]]
For navigators near the equator [[celestial navigation]] is simplified since the whole [[celestial sphere]] is exposed. Any star that passes the [[zenith]] (overhead) is on the [[celestial equator]], the basis of the [[equatorial coordinate system]]. Each star has a specific [[declination]], and when they rise or set, they give a [[bearing (navigation)|bearing]] for navigation. Stars are learned by compass point, making a star compass (star compasses list ~150 stars, in some systems<ref>[[Harold Gatty]] (1958). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=r7XDAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA45#v=onepage&q&f=false Nature Is Your Guide]'', p. 45</ref>). A simplified compass might list only a couple of dozen stars.<ref>[http://archive.hokulea.com/ike/hookele/star_compasses.html Star Compass diagrams with translations]</ref> For example, in the [[Caroline Islands]] [[Mau Piailug]] taught natural navigation using a [[List of selected stars for navigation|star compass]] diagrammed here. The development of "[[Compass rose#Sidereal compass rose|sidereal compasses]]" has been studied<ref>M.D. Halpern (1985) [http://nautarch.tamu.edu/pdf-files/Halpern-MA1985.pdf The Origins of the Carolinian Sidereal Compass], Master's thesis, [[Texas A & M University]]</ref> and theorized to have developed from an [[pelorus (instrument)#Ancient instrument|ancient pelorus]].<ref name="Gatty_1958" />
==Teknik-teknik navigasi==
The Polynesians also took measurements of stellar elevation to determine their latitude. The latitudes of specific islands were also known, and the technique of "sailing down the latitude" was used.
Navigator Polinesia menggunakan berbagai macam teknik yang diantaranya adalah penggunaan bintang, pergerakan arus laut dan pola-pola gelombang, pola interferensi udara dan laut yang disebabkan oleh pulau-pulau dan [[atoll]], burung-burung yang berterbangan, angin serta cuaca. .<ref name="Gatty_1958">{{harvnb|Gatty|1958}}.</ref>
===SwellPengamatan burung===
[[Harold Gatty]] menyarankan bahwa pelayaran Polinesia jarak jauh mengikuti jalur musiman [[migrasi burung]]. Di dalam "The Raft Book",<ref>"[http://blog.library.si.edu/tag/harold-gatty/ Be Your Own Navigator]," ''Smithsonian Libraries Unbound'', 11 February 2016.</ref> yaitu sebuah pedoman bertahan hidup yang ditulis bagi angkatan militer AS selama Perang Dunia II, Gatty menguraikan berbagai teknik-teknik serikat navigasi Polinesia atau pilot yang mengalami kecelakaan di laut, supaya dapat menggunakannya sehingga menemukan jalan ke daratan.
The Polynesians also use wave and swell formations to navigate. Many of the habitable areas of the Pacific Ocean are groups of islands (or atolls) in chains hundreds of kilometers long. Island chains have predictable effects on waves and on currents. Navigators who lived within a group of islands would learn the effect various islands had on their shape, direction, and motion and would have been able to correct their path in accordance with the changes they perceived. When they arrived in the vicinity of a chain of islands they were unfamiliar with, they may have been able to transfer their experience and deduce that they were nearing a group of islands. Once they had arrived fairly close to a destination island, they would have been able to pinpoint its location by sightings of land-based birds, certain cloud formations, as well as the reflections shallow water made on the undersides of clouds. It is thought that the Polynesian navigators may have measured the time it took to sail between islands in "canoe-days" or a similar type of expression.<ref name="Gatty_1958" />
Beberapa referensi di dalam tradisi lisan mereka tentang burung-burung yang beterbangan dan beberapa mengatakan bahwa terdapat tanda-tanda dengan kisaran di darat yang menunjuk ke pulau-pulau yang jauh sejalan dengan [[West Pacific Flyway|Jalur Terabang Pasifik Barat]]. Sebuah perjalanan dari Tahiti, Tuamotus atau Kepulauan Cook ke Selandia Baru mungkin telah mengikuti migrasi dari [[kukuk berekor panjang]] (''Eudynamys taitensis'') seperti halnya pelayaran dari Tahiti ke Hawai{{okina}} saya bertepatan dengan jejak [[Plover emas pasific]] (''Pluvialis fulva'') dan [[curlew keriting]] (''Numenius tahitiensis''). Juga diyakini bahwa orang-orang Polinesia menggunakan burung-burung yang mengamati pantai seperti halnya yang dilakukan oleh para pelaut. Satu teori menyebutkan bahwa mereka akan mengambil [[burung pergata]] (''Fregata'') bersama dengan mereka. Burung-burung ini menolak mendarat di air karena bulu mereka akan menjadi basah kuyup yang membuat mereka tidak dapat terbang. Ketika para pelayar mengira mereka dekat dengan tanah mereka mungkin telah melepaskan burung itu, yang akan terbang ke arah daratan atau kembali lagi ke arah kano.<ref name="Gatty_1958" />
==Routes==
[[File:Tupaia's map, c. 1769.jpg|thumb|[[Tupaia (navigator)|Tupaia]]'s chart of Polynesia within 3200km of [[Ra'iatea]]. 1769, preserved in the British Museum.]] ▼On [[First voyage of James Cook|his first voyage of Pacific exploration]], Captain James Cook had the services of a Polynesian navigator, [[Tupaia (navigator)|Tupaia]], who drew a chart of the islands within a {{convert|2000|mi|km}} radius (to the north and west) of his home island of [[Ra'iatea]]. Tupaia had knowledge of 130 islands and named 74 on his chart.<ref name="Druett2">{{cite book |last1= Druett |first1= Joan|authorlink1= |title=Tupaia – The Remarkable Story of Captain Cook's Polynesian Navigator |url= |format= |accessdate= |year= 1987 |publisher=Random House, New Zealand|location= |language= |isbn=|oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages=226–227|chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= }}</ref> Tupaia had navigated from Ra'iatea in short voyages to 13 islands. He had not visited western Polynesia, as since his grandfather's time the extent of voyaging by Raiateans had diminished to the islands of eastern Polynesia. His grandfather and father had passed to Tupaia the knowledge as to the location of the major islands of western Polynesia and the navigation information necessary to voyage to [[Fiji]], [[Samoa]] and [[Tonga]].<ref name="Druett1">{{cite book |last1= Druett |first1= Joan|authorlink1= |title=Tupaia – The Remarkable Story of Captain Cook's Polynesian Navigator |url= |format= |accessdate= |year= 1987 |publisher=Random House, New Zealand|location= |language= |isbn=|oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages=218–233|chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= }}</ref> Tupaia was hired by Joseph Banks, the ship's naturalist, who wrote that Cook ignored Tupaia's chart and his skills as a navigator.<ref name="O'Sullivan">{{cite book |title =In search of Captain Cook | first =Dan | last =O'Sullivan | author2= | month = | year =2008 | publisher =I.B. Taurus | page =148 | url = | isbn =9781845114831}}</ref> ▼
===Navigasi dengan bintang-bintang===
===Subantarctic and Antarctica===
[[File:Mau-star-compass.png|thumb|Sebuah potret rekreasi dari kompas bintang dari [[Mau Piailug]] yang digambarkan dengan kerang-kerang di atas pasir, dengan [[Satawalese]] (Lihat label teks [[bahasa-bahsa Trukic]]), yang telah digambarkan dan telah diterjemahkan oleh [[Masyarakat Pelayaran Polinesia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/ike/hookele/star_compasses.html |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5rkR1hSvX?url=http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/ike/hookele/star_compasses.html |archive-date=5 August 2010 |title=Star Compasses |publisher=Polynesian Voyaging Society |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Untuk navigator di [[navigasi selestial]] yang berdekatan dengan khatulistiwa disederhanakan karena seluruh [[bola selestial]] telah terekspos. Setiap bintang yang melewati [[zenit]] (atas) berada pada [[ekuator sorestial]], yang merupakan dasar dari [[sistem koordinat khatulistiwa]]. Setiap bintang memiliki [[deklinasi]] tertentu, dan ketika mereka naik atau diatur, mereka memberikan [[bantalan (navigasi)|bantalan]] untuk navigasi. Bintang-bintang dipelajari dengan titik kompas, dengan membuat sebuah kompas bintang (daftar kompas bintang ~ 150 bintang, dalam beberapa sistem<ref>[[Harold Gatty]] (1958). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=r7XDAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA45#v=onepage&q&f=false Nature Is Your Guide]'', p. 45</ref>). Sebuah kompas yang disederhanakan hanya memuat beberapa lusin bintang.<ref>[http://archive.hokulea.com/ike/hookele/star_compasses.html Star Compass diagrams with translations]</ref> Misalnya, di [[Kepulauan Caroline]] [[Mau Piailug]] mengajarkan navigasi alami dengan menggunakan [[Daftar bintang-bintang terpilih untuk navigasi|kompas bintang]] yang digambarkan di sini. Perkembangan "[[Compass rose#Sidereal compass rose|kompas-kompas bintang]]" telah dipelajari<ref>M.D. Halpern (1985) [http://nautarch.tamu.edu/pdf-files/Halpern-MA1985.pdf The Origins of the Carolinian Sidereal Compass], Master's thesis, [[Texas A & M University]]</ref>dan telah berteori yang telah berkembang dari [[pelorus (instrumen) #instrumen kuno|pelorus kuno]].<ref name="Gatty_1958" />
[[Image:Antarctica Map.png|350px|thumb|right|Antarctica and surrounding islands, showing the [[Auckland Islands]] just above (south of) New Zealand, at the center bottom of the image]]
Polinesia juga mengambil pengukuran ketinggian bintang untuk menentukan garis lintang mereka. Garis lintang pulau tertentu juga dikenal, dan teknik "berlayar ke bawah lintang" juga telah digunakan.
There is academic debate on the furthest southern extent of Polynesian expansion.
===Gelombang besar===
There is material evidence of Polynesian visits to some of the [[New Zealand Subantarctic Islands|subantarctic islands to the south of New Zealand]], which are outside Polynesia proper. Remains of a Polynesian settlement dating back to the 13th century were found on [[Enderby Island]] in the [[Auckland Islands]].<ref>O'Connor, Tom ''Polynesians in the Southern Ocean: Occupation of the Auckland Islands in Prehistory'' in New Zealand Geographic 69 (September–October 2004): 6–8</ref><ref>Anderson, Atholl J., & Gerard R. O'Regan "To the Final Shore: Prehistoric Colonisation of the Subantarctic Islands in South Polynesia" in ''Australian Archaeologist: Collected Papers in Honour of Jim Allen'' Canberra: Australian National University, 2000. 440–454.</ref><ref>Anderson, Atholl J., & Gerard R. O'Regan ''The Polynesian Archaeology of the Subantarctic Islands: An Initial Report on Enderby Island'' Southern Margins Project Report. Dunedin: Ngai Tahu Development Report, 1999</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Atholl J. |title=Subpolar Settlement in South Polynesia |journal=Antiquity |volume=79 |issue=306 |year=2005 |pages=791–800 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00114930}}</ref> Descriptions of a shard of early Polynesian pottery buried on the [[Antipodes Islands]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Te Ao Hou|first=|date=1967|title=The Maori Magazine|url=http://teaohou.natlib.govt.nz/teaohou/issue/Mao59TeA/c18.html|journal=|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> are unsubstantiated, and the [[Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa]], where it was supposedly stored, has stated that "The Museum has not been able to locate such a shard in its collection, and the original reference<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=|title=Captain Fairchild to the Secretary, Marine Department, Wellington|url=http://atojs.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/atojs?a=d&d=AJHR1886-I.1.2502&cl=search&srpos=1&e=-------50--1------01886+hZz-24%E2%80%94|journal=Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1886 Session I, H-24 Page 6|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> to the object in the Museum's collection documentation indicates no reference to Polynesian influences." ▼Polinesia juga menggunakan formasi gelombang dan ombak untuk bernavigasi. Banyak wilayah yang dapat dihuni di Samudra Pasifik merupakan kelompok pulau (atau atol) dalam rantai dengan panjang ratusan kilometer. Rantai-rantai pulau memiliki efek yang dapat diprediksi terhadap gelombang dan arus. Navigator yang tinggal di dalam kelompok pulau akan mempelajari pengaruh berbagai pulau terhadap bentuk, arah, dan gerak mereka dan akan mampu memperbaiki jalan mereka sesuai dengan perubahan yang mereka rasakan. Ketika mereka tiba di sekitar rantai pulau yang tidak mereka kenal, mereka mungkin dapat mengalihkan pengalaman mereka dan menyimpulkan bahwa mereka mendekati sekelompok pulau. Begitu mereka tiba cukup dekat dengan pulau tujuan, mereka akan mampu menentukan lokasinya dengan melihat burung-burung yang mendekati daratan, formasi awan tertentu, serta refleksi air dangkal yang dibuat di bagian bawah awan. Diperkirakan bahwa para navigator Polinesia mungkin telah mengukur jumlah waktu yang diperlukan untuk berlayar di antara pulau-pulau di dalam "hari-hari kano" atau jenis ekspresi serupa.<ref name="Gatty_1958" />
==Rute-rute==
Oral history describes [[Ui-te-Rangiora]], around the year 650, leading a fleet of [[Waka (canoe)|Waka Tīwai]] south until they reached, ''"a place of bitter cold where rock-like structures rose from a solid sea".''<ref name="Quote">{{cite web|url=http://www.fathomexpeditions.com/explorer/history/timeline.html|title=Expedition Cruises Fathom Expeditions Custom Cruise|publisher=|accessdate=2 March 2016|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100623105959/http://www.fathomexpeditions.com/explorer/history/timeline.html|archivedate=23 June 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The brief description might match the [[Ross Ice Shelf]] or possibly the [[Antarctica|Antarctic mainland]],<ref name=ancients>{{cite web|url=http://andrill.org/about/antarctica|title=All About Antarctica|publisher=|accessdate=2 March 2016}}</ref> but may be a description of [[iceberg]]s surrounded by [[Antarctic sea ice|sea Ice]] found in the [[Southern Ocean]].<ref name=Unsure>{{cite web|url=http://www.theleftcoaster.com/archives/013883.php|title=The Left Coaster: freeze frame|publisher=|accessdate=2 March 2016}}</ref><ref name=UiTe>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612767/Ui-te-Rangiora|title=Ui-te-Rangiora|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=2 March 2016}}</ref> The account also describes snow. ▼▲[[File:Tupaia's map, c. 1769.jpg|thumb| Bagan [[Tupaia (navigator)|Tupaia]] 's chartPolinesia ofdalam Polynesia3200 within 3200km ofkm [[Ra'iatea]]. 1769, preserved indiawetkan thedi British Museum.]]
▲OnPada [[ FirstPelayaran voyagepertama ofdari James Cook |his] firstpelayaran voyagepertamanya ofdari Pacificpenjelajahan explorationPasifik]], CaptainKapten James Cook hadmemiliki thelayanan servicesdari ofseorang anavigator Polynesian navigatorPolinesia, [[Tupaia (navigator)|Tupaia]], who drew a chart ofyang themenggambar islandsbagan withinpulau-pulau adalam {{convert|2000|mi|km}} radius ( toke theutara northdan and westbarat) ofdari hispulau home island ofasalnya [[Ra'iatea]]. Tupaia hadmemiliki knowledgepengetahuan oftentang 130 islandspulau anddan nameddiberi 74nama on74 hisdi chartbagannya.<ref name="Druett2">{{cite book |last1= Druett |first1= Joan|authorlink1= |title=Tupaia – The Remarkable Story of Captain Cook's Polynesian Navigator |url= |format= |accessdate= |year= 1987 |publisher=Random House, New Zealand|location= |language= |isbn=|oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages=226–227|chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= }}</ref> Tupaia hadtelah navigatedbernavigasi fromdari Ra'iatea indalam shortperjalanan voyagessingkat toke 13 islandspulau. HeDia hadbelum notmengunjungi visitedPolinesia western Polynesiabarat, askarena sincesejak hiskakeknya, grandfather'stingkat timepelayaran theoleh extentorang-orang ofRaiate voyagingtelah byberkurang Raiateanske hadkepulauan diminishedPolinesia to the islands of eastern Polynesiatimur. Kakek Hisdan grandfatherayahnya andtelah fatherpergi had passed toke Tupaia ; thedi knowledgemana aspengetahuan totentang thelokasi locationpulau-pulau ofbesar the major islands ofdi westernPolinesia Polynesiabarat andserta theinformasi navigationnavigasi informationyang necessarydiperlukan tountuk voyageberlayar toke [[Fiji]], [[Samoa]] anddan [[Tonga]].<ref name="Druett1">{{cite book |last1= Druett |first1= Joan|authorlink1= |title=Tupaia – The Remarkable Story of Captain Cook's Polynesian Navigator |url= |format= |accessdate= |year= 1987 |publisher=Random House, New Zealand|location= |language= |isbn=|oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages=218–233|chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= }}</ref> Tupaia wasdipekerjakan hired byoleh Joseph Banks, theyaitu ship'sseorang naturalistnaturalis kapal, whoyang wrotemenulis thatbahwa Cook ignoredmengabaikan bagan Tupaia 's chart and hisdan skillskeahliannya assebagai aseorang navigator.<ref name="O'Sullivan">{{cite book |title =In search of Captain Cook | first =Dan | last =O'Sullivan | author2= | month = | year =2008 | publisher =I.B. Taurus | page =148 | url = | isbn =9781845114831}}</ref>
=== Pre-Columbian contact with the Americas ===
{{Main|Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact}}
In the mid-20th century, [[Thor Heyerdahl]] proposed a new theory of Polynesian origins (one which did not win general acceptance), arguing that the Polynesians had migrated from South America on [[balsa]]-log boats.<ref name="Sharp_1963_122128">{{harvnb|Sharp|1963|pp=122–128}}.</ref><ref name="Finney_1963_5" />
===Subantarktik dan antarktika===
The presence in the [[Cook Islands]] of [[Ipomoea batatas|sweet potato]] that is a plant native to the Americas (called ''kūmara'' in [[Māori language|Māori]]), which have been radiocarbon-dated to 1000 CE, has been cited as evidence that Americans could have traveled to Oceania. The current thinking is that sweet potato was brought to central Polynesia circa 700 CE and spread across Polynesia from there, possibly by Polynesians who had traveled to South America and back.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Van Tilburg |first=Jo Anne |year=1994 |title=Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |isbn= }}</ref> An alternative explanation posits [[biological dispersal]]; plants and/or seeds could float across the Pacific without any human contact.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.climate.uvic.ca/people/alvaro/SPotato.pdf |title=Modeling the prehistoric arrival of the sweet potato in Polynesia |author=Montenegro, A. |display-authors=etal |date= |work=Journal of Archaeological Science |publisher=University of Victoria |accessdate=6 September 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628030307/http://climate.uvic.ca/people/alvaro/SPotato.pdf |archivedate=28 June 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ▼[[Image:Antarctica Map.png|350px|thumb|right|Antartika dan pulau-pulau sekitarnya, menunjukkan [[Kepulauan Auckland]] yang tepat berada di atas (selatan) Selandia Baru, di bagian tengah bawah gambar]] Terdapat perdebatan akademis tentang perluasan Polinesia yang berada di selatan.
▲ThereAda isbukti material evidencedari ofkunjungan PolynesianPolinesia visitsyang tomendatangi some of thebeberapa [[ NewPulau-pulau Zealandsubantarktika SubantarcticSelandia IslandsBaru| subantarcticpulau-pulau islandske toarah theselatan southSelandia of New ZealandBaru]], whichyang areberada outsidedi Polynesialuar properPolinesia. RemainsSisa-sisa ofpemukiman aPolinesia Polynesianyang settlementberasal datingdari backabad toke-13 thetelah 13thditemukan century were found ondi [[Enderby Island]] in thedi [[ Kepulauan Auckland Islands]].<ref>O'Connor, Tom ''Polynesians in the Southern Ocean: Occupation of the Auckland Islands in Prehistory'' in New Zealand Geographic 69 (September–October 2004): 6–8</ref><ref>Anderson, Atholl J., & Gerard R. O'Regan "To the Final Shore: Prehistoric Colonisation of the Subantarctic Islands in South Polynesia" in ''Australian Archaeologist: Collected Papers in Honour of Jim Allen'' Canberra: Australian National University, 2000. 440–454.</ref><ref>Anderson, Atholl J., & Gerard R. O'Regan ''The Polynesian Archaeology of the Subantarctic Islands: An Initial Report on Enderby Island'' Southern Margins Project Report. Dunedin: Ngai Tahu Development Report, 1999</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Atholl J. |title=Subpolar Settlement in South Polynesia |journal=Antiquity |volume=79 |issue=306 |year=2005 |pages=791–800 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00114930}}</ref> Descriptions of a shard of early Polynesian pottery buried on the [[Antipodes Islands]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Te Ao Hou|first=|date=1967|title=The Maori Magazine|url=http://teaohou.natlib.govt.nz/teaohou/issue/Mao59TeA/c18.html|journal=|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> are unsubstantiated, and the [[Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa]], where it was supposedly stored, has stated that "The Museum has not been able to locate such a shard in its collection, and the original reference<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=|title=Captain Fairchild to the Secretary, Marine Department, Wellington|url=http://atojs.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/atojs?a=d&d=AJHR1886-I.1.2502&cl=search&srpos=1&e=-------50--1------01886+hZz-24%E2%80%94|journal=Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1886 Session I, H-24 Page 6|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> to the object in the Museum's collection documentation indicates no reference to Polynesian influences."
A 2007 study published in the ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]'' examined [[chicken]] bones at [[El Arenal, Chile|El Arenal]] near the [[Arauco Peninsula]], [[Arauco Province]], [[Chile]]. The results suggested Oceania-to-America contact. Chickens originated in southern Asia and the ''Araucana'' breed of Chile was thought to have been brought by Spaniards around 1500. However, the bones found in Chile were radiocarbon-dated to between 1304 and 1424, well before the documented arrival of the Spanish. DNA sequences taken were exact matches to those of chickens from the same period in [[American Samoa]] and [[Tonga]], both over 5000 miles (8000 kilometers) away from Chile. The genetic sequences were also similar to those found in [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]] and [[Easter Island]], the closest island at only 2500 miles (4000 kilometers), and unlike any breed of European chicken.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.livescience.com/history/070604_polynesian_chicken.html | title = Chicken Bones Suggest Polynesians Found Americas Before Columbus | journal = Live Science | date = 4 June 2007 | accessdate = 5 June 2007 | last = Whipps | first = Heather | postscript = . }}</ref><ref name=lat>{{cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-sci-chickens5jun05,1,4338408.story?coll=la-headlines-nation |title=Polynesians beat Spaniards to South America, study shows |first=Thomas H., II |last=Maugh |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=5 June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Storey |first=A. A. |display-authors=etal | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0703993104v2 |title=Radiocarbon and DNA evidence for a pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |doi=10.1073/pnas.0703993104 |year=2007 |volume=104 |issue=25 |pages=10335–10339}}</ref> ▼Although this initial report suggested a Polynesian pre-Columbian origin a later report looking at the same specimens concluded:
Deskripsi dari pecahan tembikar Polinesia awal terkubur di [[Kepulauan Antipodes]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Te Ao Hou|first=|date=1967|title=The Maori Magazine|url=http://teaohou.natlib.govt.nz/teaohou/issue/Mao59TeA/c18.html|journal=|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> yang tidak berdasar, dan [[Museum Selandia Baru Te Papa Tongarewa]], yang seharusnya disimpan, telah menyatakan bahwa "Museum ini belum dapat menemukan pecahan seperti itu di dalam koleksinya, dan referensi asli<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=|title=Captain Fairchild to the Secretary, Marine Department, Wellington|url=http://atojs.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/atojs?a=d&d=AJHR1886-I.1.2502&cl=search&srpos=1&e=-------50--1------01886+hZz-24%E2%80%94|journal=Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1886 Session I, H-24 Page 6|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> ke objek dalam dokumentasi koleksi Museum yang menunjukkan tidak ada referensi tentang adanya pengaruh Polinesia."
▲OralSejarah historylisan describesmenggambarkan [[Ui-te-Rangiora]], arounddi thesekitar yeartahun 650, leadingmemimpin a fleet ofarmada [[Waka ( canoekano)|Waka Tīwai]] southke untilarah theyselatan reachedhingga mereka mencapai, ''" atempat placedi ofmana bitterdingin coldseperti wherebatu rock-likemenstrukturisasi structureskenaikan rosedari fromlautan apadat solid sea". ''<ref name="Quote">{{cite web|url=http://www.fathomexpeditions.com/explorer/history/timeline.html|title=Expedition Cruises Fathom Expeditions Custom Cruise|publisher=|accessdate=2 March 2016|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100623105959/http://www.fathomexpeditions.com/explorer/history/timeline.html|archivedate=23 June 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref> TheDeskripsi briefsingkat descriptionmungkin mightcocok match thedengan [[ RossPaparan IceEs ShelfRoss]] oratau possibly themungkin [[ AntarcticaAntarktika| Antarcticdaratan mainlandAntartika]],<ref name=ancients>{{cite web|url=http://andrill.org/about/antarctica|title=All About Antarctica|publisher=|accessdate=2 March 2016}}</ref> buttetapi maymungkin be a description ofdeskripsi [[ iceberggunung es]] s surroundeddikelilingi byoleh [[ Antarctices sealaut iceAntartika| sea IceEs Laut]] foundyang inditemukan thedi [[ SouthernSamudera OceanSelatan]].<ref name=Unsure>{{cite web|url=http://www.theleftcoaster.com/archives/013883.php|title=The Left Coaster: freeze frame|publisher=|accessdate=2 March 2016}}</ref><ref name=UiTe>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612767/Ui-te-Rangiora|title=Ui-te-Rangiora|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=2 March 2016}}</ref> TheAkun accounttersebut alsojuga describesmenggambarkan snowsalju.
=== Kontak pra-Columbus dengan Amerika ===
{{Main|Kontak trans-samudera pra-Columbus}}
Pada pertengahan abad ke-20, [[Thor Heyerdahl]] mengusulkan teori baru tentang asal-usul Polinesia (yang tidak memenangkan penerimaan umum), dengan alasan bahwa orang-orang Polinesia telah bermigrasi dari Amerika Selatan ke perahu kayu [[balsa]].<ref name="Sharp_1963_122128">{{harvnb|Sharp|1963|pp=122–128}}.</ref><ref name="Finney_1963_5" />
▲The presence in theKehadiran [[ CookIpomoea Islandsbatatas|ubi jalar]] ofdi [[ IpomoeaKepulauan batatas|sweet potatoCook]] that is a plantyang nativemerupakan totanaman theasli AmericasAmerika ( calleddisebut ''kūmara'' indalam [[ bahasa Māori language|Māori]]), whichyang havetelah beenradiokarbonisasi radiocarbon-datedhingga totahun 1000 CEM, hastelah beendikutip citedsebagai asbukti evidencebahwa thatorang AmericansAmerika couldtelah havebepergian traveledke tosamudera Oceania. ThePemikiran currentsaat thinkingmenyebutkan isbahwa thatubi sweetjalar potatodibawa waske broughtPolinesia topusat centralsekitar Polynesia circatahun 700 CEM anddan spreadtersebar acrossdi PolynesiaPolinesia fromdari theresana, possiblydiperkirakan byoleh Polynesiansorang-orang whoPolinesia hadyang traveledtelah tomelakukan Southperjalanan Americake andAmerika Selatan dan telah backkembali.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Van Tilburg |first=Jo Anne |year=1994 |title=Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |isbn= }}</ref> AnSebuah alternativepenjelasan explanationalternatif positsmengemukakan [[ biologicalpenyebar dispersalbiologis]]; plantstanaman anddan/ or seedsatau couldbiji floatdapat acrossmengapung thedi PacificPasifik withouttanpa anykontak humandengan contactmanusia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.climate.uvic.ca/people/alvaro/SPotato.pdf |title=Modeling the prehistoric arrival of the sweet potato in Polynesia |author=Montenegro, A. |display-authors=etal |date= |work=Journal of Archaeological Science |publisher=University of Victoria |accessdate=6 September 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628030307/http://climate.uvic.ca/people/alvaro/SPotato.pdf |archivedate=28 June 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
▲ASebuah studi di tahun 2007 studyyang publishedditerbitkan in thedalam ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]'' examinedtelah memeriksa tulang [[ chickenayam]] bones atdi [[El Arenal, Chile|El Arenal]] neardi thedekat [[ AraucoSemenanjung PeninsulaArauco]], [[ Provinsi Arauco Province]], [[ ChileChili]]. TheHasilnya resultsmenyarankan suggestedkontak Oceania- toke- America contactAmerika. ChickensAyam-ayam originatedyang inberasal southerndari Asia andselatan thedan ''"Araucana ''" breedtelah ofberkembang Chilebiak wasdi thoughtChili toserta havedianggap beendibawa broughtoleh byorang SpaniardsSpanyol aroundsekitar tahun 1500 M. HoweverNamun, thetulang bonesyang foundditemukan indi ChileChili tersebut wereadalah radiocarbonradiokarbon- datedtanggal tountuk betweenantara 1304 anddan 1424, welljauh beforesebelum thekedatangan documenteddidokumentasikan arrivalSpanyol. of the Spanish.Sekuens DNA sequencesyang takendiambil weresama exactpersis matchesdengan to6 thoseayam ofdari chickens from theperiode sameyang periodsama indi [[ AmericanSamoa SamoaAmerika]] anddan [[Tonga]], bothkeduanya overlebih dari 5000 milesmil (8000 kilometerskilometer) awaydari from ChileChili. Urutan Thegenetik geneticjuga sequencesmirip weredengan alsoyang similarditemukan to those found indi [[Hawaii | Hawai{{okina}}i Hawaii]] anddan [[ EasterPulau IslandPaskah]], theyaitu closestpulau islandterdekat atyang onlyhanya 25002.500 milesmil ( 40004.000 kilometerskm), anddan unliketidak anyseperti breedjenis ofayam EuropeanEropa chickenlainnya.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.livescience.com/history/070604_polynesian_chicken.html | title = Chicken Bones Suggest Polynesians Found Americas Before Columbus | journal = Live Science | date = 4 June 2007 | accessdate = 5 June 2007 | last = Whipps | first = Heather | postscript = . }}</ref><ref name=lat>{{cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-sci-chickens5jun05,1,4338408.story?coll=la-headlines-nation |title=Polynesians beat Spaniards to South America, study shows |first=Thomas H., II |last=Maugh |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=5 June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Storey |first=A. A. |display-authors=etal | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0703993104v2 |title=Radiocarbon and DNA evidence for a pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |doi=10.1073/pnas.0703993104 |year=2007 |volume=104 |issue=25 |pages=10335–10339}}</ref> Meskipun laporan awal ini menyarankan asal pra-Columbus Polinesia; laporan selanjutnya melihat spesimen yang sama dan menyimpulkan:
<blockquote>
ASpesimen publishedChili yang diterbitkan, apparentlytampaknya prepra-ColumbianColumbus, Chileandan specimenenam andspesimen sixPolinesia prepra-EuropeanEropa Polynesianjuga specimensmengelompok alsodengan clusterurutan withEropa/subbenua the same EuropeanIndia/IndianAsia subcontinental/SoutheastTenggara Asianyang sequencessama, providingyang notidak supportmemberikan fordukungan auntuk Polynesianpengenalan introductionayam-ayam ofPolinesia chickenske toAmerika South AmericaSelatan. In contrastSebaliknya, sequencesurutan fromdari twodua archaeologicalsitus sitesarkeologi onpada Easterkelompok IslandPulau groupPaskah withdengan anhaplogroup uncommonyang haplogrouptidak fromumum dari Indonesia, JapanJepang, anddan ChinaTiongkok anddapat maymewakili representjejak agenetik geneticdari signaturepenyebaran ofPolinesia an early Polynesian dispersalawal. ModelingPemodelan ofkontribusi thekarbon potentiallaut marinepotensial carbonuntuk contributionspesimen toarkeologi theChili Chileanmembuat archaeologicalkeraguan specimenlebih castslanjut furtherpada doubtklaim ontentang claimsayam for prepra-Columbian chickensColumbus, andserta definitivebukti proofdefinitif willmemerlukan requireanalisis furtherlebih analyseslanjut ofdari ancienturutan DNA sequenceskuno andserta radiocarbonradiokarbon anddan stabledata isotopeisotop datastabil fromdari archaeologicalpenggalian excavationsarkeologi withinbaik bothdi ChileChili anddan PolynesiaPolinesia.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Indo-European and Asian origins for Chilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA| first1=J. |last1=Gongora |display-authors=etal |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |year=2008 |volume=105 |issue=30 |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/105/30/10308 |pages=10308–10313 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801991105}}</ref>
</blockquote>
InDalam the20 last 20tahun yearsterakhir, thetanggal datesdan andfitur anatomicalanatomi featuressisa-sisa ofmanusia humanyang remainsditemukan found indi [[MexicoMeksiko]] anddan SouthAmerika AmericaSelatan havetelah ledmenyebabkan somebeberapa archaeologistsarkeolog{{who|date =February Februari 2014}} tomengusulkan proposebahwa thatdaerah-daerah thosetersebut regionsmerupakan weredaerah firstyang populatedpertama bykali peopledihuni whooleh crossedorang-orang theyang Pacificmenyeberangi severalsamudera millenniaPasifik beforedi thebeberapa milenium sebelum terjadinya migrasi pada [[IceZaman AgeEs]] migrations; accordingmenurut to thisteori theoryini, thesehal wouldini haveakan beendieliminasi eitheratau eliminateddiserap oroleh absorbedpara byimigran the Siberian immigrantsSiberia. HoweverNamun, currentbukti archaeologicalarkeologi evidencesaat forini humanmengenai migrationmigrasi tomanusia anddan settlementpendudukan ofOseania remote Oceaniaterpencil (i.e., theyaitu [[PacificSamudera OceanPasifik]] eastwardske ofarah thetimur [[Kepulauan Solomon Islands]]) isbertanggal datedtidak tolebih noawal earlierdari thansekitar approximatelytahun 3,.500 [[BeforeSebelum Presentkini|BP]];<ref>Kirch, Patrick V. [http://sscl.berkeley.edu/~oal/background/background.htm ''Background to Pacific Archaeology and Prehistory''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609112244/http://sscl.berkeley.edu/~oal/background/background.htm |date=9 June 2007 }}, Oceanic Archaeology Laboratory, Univ. California, Berkeley.</ref> kontak trans-PacificPasifik contactdengan withAmerika thebertepatan Americasdengan coincidingatau with or prepra-datingtejadinya themigrasi Beringia migrations of at leastsetidaknya 11,.500 BP isyang highlysangat problematicbermasalah, exceptkecuali karena adanya pergerakan fordi movementsepanjang alongrute intercoastalantar routespesisir.
RecentlyAkhir-akhir ini, linguistahli bahasa [[Kathryn A. Klar]] ofdari [[University ofUniversitas California, Berkeley]] anddan [[archaeologistarkeolog]] [[Terry L. Jones]] ofdari [[CaliforniaUniversitas PolytechnicNegeri StatePoliteknik UniversityCalifornia]] have proposedtelah contactsmengajukan betweenkontak Polynesiansantara andPolinesia thedan [[Chumash (tribesuku)|suku Chumash]] andserta [[Gabrielino]] ofdari [[SouthernCalifornia CaliforniaSelatan]], betweentahun antara 500 anddan 700. Bukti Their primaryutama evidencemereka consiststerdiri ofdari thedesain advancedperahu sewn-plank canoe designcanggih, whichyang isdigunakan useddi throughoutseluruh theKepulauan Polynesian IslandsPolinesia, buttetapi istidak unknowndiketahui indi NorthAmerika AmericaUtara; –kecuali exceptkedua forsuku thosetersebut. twoSelain tribes. Moreoveritu, thekata Chumash worduntuk for"kano "sewn-plank canoe", ''"[[tomolo'o]] '', maymungkin haveberasal been derived fromdari ''kumulaa'au'', adi mana kata HawaiianHawaii wordartinya meaningadalah "usefulpohon treeberguna".
InPada tahun 2008, ansebuah expeditionekspedisi startingyang ondimulai thedi PhilippinesFilipina sailedberlayar twodengan dua katamaran modern yang dirancang [[James Wharram| Wharram]]-designed catamarans looselysecara basedlonggar onberdasarkan akatamaran PolynesianPolinesia catamaranyang foundditemukan in Aucklanddi Museum NewAuckland Selandia ZealandBaru. ThePerahu-perahu boatstersebut weredibangun builtdi inFilipina theoleh Philippinespembangun bykapal anyang experiencedberpengalaman boatdi buildermana todesain Wharram designsmenggunakan usingpapan strip modern strip plankdengan withlem epoxy untuk resin glueyang builtdibangun overdi plywoodatas framesbingkai kayu lapis. ThePara catamaranskatamaran hadmemiliki modernlayar Dacron sailsmodern, Terylene staystinggal anddan sheetsseprai withdengan modernblok roller blocksmodern. Wharram saysmengatakan hedia usedmenggunakan Polynesiannavigasi navigationPolinesia tountuk sailberlayar alongdi thesepanjang coastpantai ofNugini NorthernUtara Newdan Guineakemudian andberlayar then150 sailed 150mil mileske tosebuah anpulau islanddi formana whichia hememiliki hadpeta modern charts, provinglalu thatmembuktikan itbahwa isadalah possiblemungkin tountuk sailberlayar adengan katamaran modern catamarandi alongsepanjang thejalur path of themigrasi Lapita Pacific migrationPasifik.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lapita-voyage.org/en/lapita_voyage.html|title=Lapita Voyage – The first expedition following the migration route of the ancient Polynesians|author=Klaus Hympendahl|publisher=|accessdate=2 March 2016}}</ref> UnlikeTidak manyseperti otherkebanyakan modern Polynesianperjalanan "replicareplika" voyagesPolinesia themodern, katamaran Wharram catamaranstidak weredigandeng notatau toweddikawal oroleh escorted by akapal modern vesseldengan withsistem modernnavigasi GPS navigation systemmodern, nor wereyang theyjuga fittedtidak withdilengkapi adengan motor.
Polynesian contact with the prehispanic [[Mapuche]] culture in central-south Chile has been suggested because of apparently similar cultural traits, including words like ''toki'' (stone axes and adzes), hand clubs similar to the [[Māori language|Māori]] ''wahaika'', the sewn-plank canoe as used on Chiloe island, the ''curanto'' earth oven (Polynesian ''umu'') common in southern Chile, fishing techniques such as stone wall enclosures, a hockey-like game, and other potential parallels. Some strong westerlies and [[El Niño-Southern Oscillation|El Niño]] wind blow directly from central-east Polynesia to the Mapuche region, between Concepcion and Chiloe. A direct connection from New Zealand is possible, sailing with the [[Roaring Forties]]. In 1834, some escapees from [[Tasmania]] arrived at Chiloe Island after sailing for 43 days.<ref>{{cite web | title = Rapa Nui | language = Spanish |url = http://www.rapanuivalparaiso.cl/arque_olog.htm#ar5 | accessdate = 5 June 2007 }}</ref>
Kontak polynesia dengan budaya [[Mapuche]] prasejarah di Chili tengah-selatan telah disarankan karena sifat-sifat budaya yang tampaknya serupa, termasuk kata-kata seperti ''toki'' (kapak batu dan adzes), klub tangan yang mirip dengan [[bahasa Māori|Māori]] ''wahaika'', di mana kano sewn-plank seperti yang digunakan di pulau Chiloe, oven bumi ''curanto'' (Polinesia ''umu'') umumnya di Chili selatan, dengan teknik penangkapan ikan seperti dinding batu, dengan permainan seperti hoki, serta paralel potensial lainnya. Beberapa angin kuat serta angin [[Osilasi El Niño Selatan|El Niño]] yang bertiup langsung dari Polinesia tengah-timur ke wilayah Mapuche, antara wilayah Concepcion dan Chiloe. Koneksi langsung dari Selandia Baru adalah mungkin, yang berlayar dengan [[Roaring Forties]]. Di tahun 1834, beberapa pelarian dari [[Tasmania]] tiba di Pulau Chiloe setelah berlayar dengan lama 43 hari.<ref>{{cite web | title = Rapa Nui | language = Spanish |url = http://www.rapanuivalparaiso.cl/arque_olog.htm#ar5 | accessdate = 5 June 2007 }}</ref>
==Revival==
==Kebangkitan==
{{expand section|date=March 2017}}
[[File:NainoaThompson2003.jpg|thumb|right|150px|HawaiianNavigator navigatorasal Hawaii, [[Nainoa Thompson]], 2003.]]
The first settlers of the [[Hawaiian Islands]] are thought to have sailed from the [[Marquesas Islands]] using Polynesian navigation methods.{{sfn|Bellwood|1987|pp=39–65}} To test this theory, the Hawaiian [[Polynesian Voyaging Society]] was established in 1973. The group built a replica of an ancient double-hulled canoe called the [[Hokulea|Hōkūle'a]], whose crew successfully navigated the Pacific Ocean from [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]] to [[Tahiti]] in 1976 without instruments. In 1980, a Hawaiian named [[Nainoa Thompson]] invented a new method of [[wayfinding|non-instrument navigation]] (called the "modern Hawaiian wayfinding system"), enabling him to complete the voyage from Hawai{{okina}}i to [[Tahiti]] and back. In 1987, a [[Māori people|Māori]] named Matahi Whakataka (Greg Brightwell) and his mentor Francis Cowan sailed from Tahiti to [[Aotearoa]] without instruments.
Pemukim pertama di [[Kepulauan Hawaii]] diperkirakan telah berlayar dari [[Kepulauan Marquesas]] dengan menggunakan metode navigasi Polinesia.{{Sfn|Bellwood|1987|pp=39–65}} Untuk menguji teori ini, [Masuarakat Pelayaran Polinesia]] di Hawaii didirikan pada tahun 1973. Kelompok ini membangun replika perahu kuno dengan ukiran ganda yang disebut [[Hokulea|Hōkūle'a]], yang awaknya berhasil menjelajahi Samudera Pasifik dari [[Hawaii|Hawaii]] ke [[Tahiti]] pada tahun 1976 tanpa instrumen. Di tahun 1980, seorang Hawaii yang bernama [[Nainoa Thompson]] menemukan metode baru [[Penemuan jalur|navigasi tanpa instrumen]] (yang disebut "sistem penean jalur Hawaii modern"), yang memungkinkannya untuk menyelesaikan pelayaran dari Hawaii ke [[Tahiti]] dan kembali lagi. Pada tahun 1987, seorang [[orang-orang Māori|suku Māori]] bernama Matahi Whakataka (Greg Brightwell) dan mentornya Francis Cowan berlayar dari Tahiti ke [[Aotearoa]] tanpa instrumen.
InDi NewSelandia ZealandBaru, a leading Māoriseorang navigator anddan shippembuat builderkapal isMāori terkemuka, [[Hector Busby]] , whojuga wasterinspirasi alsodan inspireddipengaruhi andoleh influenced byperjalanan Nainoa Thompson anddan Hokulea 's voyagedi sana therepada intahun 1985.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maoriart.org.nz/hekenukumai-hector-busby-p-149.html |title=Profile: Hekenukumai (Hector) Busby |work=[[Toi Māori Aotearoa]] |accessdate=12 October 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20141011205028/http://www.maoriart.org.nz/hekenukumai-hector-busby-p-149.html |archivedate=11 October 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.wakatapu.com/ | title=Waka Tapu Canoes | publisher=[[NZMACI]] & Taitokerau Tarai Waka | accessdate=12 October 2014}}</ref> ▼
==Sejarah penelitian pascakolonial==
▲In New Zealand, a leading Māori navigator and ship builder is [[Hector Busby]] who was also inspired and influenced by Nainoa Thompson and Hokulea's voyage there in 1985.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maoriart.org.nz/hekenukumai-hector-busby-p-149.html |title=Profile: Hekenukumai (Hector) Busby |work=[[Toi Māori Aotearoa]] |accessdate=12 October 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20141011205028/http://www.maoriart.org.nz/hekenukumai-hector-busby-p-149.html |archivedate=11 October 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.wakatapu.com/ | title=Waka Tapu Canoes | publisher=[[NZMACI]] & Taitokerau Tarai Waka | accessdate=12 October 2014}}</ref>
[[File:Mau Piailug.gif|thumb|right|150px|Navigator [[Mau Piailug]] (1932–2010) ofdari Pulau [[Satawal]] island, MicronesiaMikronesia]] ▼
Pengetahuan tentang metode navigasi tradisional Polinesia secara luas hilang setelah adanya kontak dengan kolonialisme orang-orang Eropa. Hal ini menyebabkan perdebatan atas alasan kehadiran Polinesia di daerah Pasifik yang terisolir dan tercerai-berai. Menurut [[Andrew Sharp (sejarawan)|Andrew Sharp]], seorang penjelajah Kapten [[James Cook]], yang sudah akrab dengan nama [[Charles de Brosses]] tentang kelompok besar penduduk pulau Pasifik yang digerakkan di jalur badai dan berakhir ratusan mil jauhnya tanpa tahu di mana mereka, ditemukan dalam perjalanan salah satu pelayarannya mandiri dengan kelompok terbuang Tahitians yang telah hilang di laut dalam badai dengan angin yang bertiup 1000 mil jauhnya ke pulau [[Atiu]]. Cook menulis bahwa insiden ini "akan berfungsi untuk menjelaskan, lebih baik daripada ribuan dugaan spekulatif, tentang bagaimana bagian yang terpisah dari bumi, dan, khususnya, bagaimana Laut Selatan, mungkin telah dihuni".<ref name="Sharp_1963_16">{{harvnb|Sharp|1963|p=16}}.</ref>
==Post-colonial research history==
▲[[File:Mau Piailug.gif|thumb|right|150px|Navigator [[Mau Piailug]] (1932–2010) of [[Satawal]] island, Micronesia]]
Knowledge of the traditional Polynesian methods of navigation was widely lost after contact with and colonization by Europeans. This caused debates over the reasons for the presence of the Polynesians in such isolated and scattered parts of the Pacific. According to [[Andrew Sharp (historian)|Andrew Sharp]], the explorer Captain [[James Cook]], already familiar with [[Charles de Brosses]]'s accounts of large groups of Pacific islanders who were driven off course in storms and ended up hundreds of miles away with no idea where they were, encountered in the course of one of his own voyages a castaway group of Tahitians who had become lost at sea in a gale and blown 1000 miles away to the island of [[Atiu]]. Cook wrote that this incident "will serve to explain, better than the thousand conjectures of speculative reasoners, how the detached parts of the earth, and, in particular, how the South Seas, may have been peopled".<ref name="Sharp_1963_16">{{harvnb|Sharp|1963|p=16}}.</ref>
ByDi theakhir lateabad 19thke-19 centuryhingga toawal theabad early 20th centuryke-20, apandangan moreumum generoustentang viewnavigasi ofPolinesia Polynesianlebih navigation had come into favordisukai, creatingdengan apandangan muchyang romanticizedsangat viewromantis oftentang their seamanshippelayaran, canoeskano, anddan keahlian navigationalnavigasi expertisemereka. LateAkhir 19thabad andke-19 earlydan 20thawal centuriesabad writerske-20 suchpenulis asseperti [[Abraham Fornander]] anddan [[Percy Smith (ethnologistethnologis)|Percy Smith]] toldmenceritakan oftentang heroicPolinesia Polynesiansheroik migratingyang inbermigrasi greatdalam coordinatedarmada fleetsterkoordinasi frombesar dari Asia farjauh andke widePolinesia into present-daymasa Polynesiakini.<ref name="Finney_1963_5">{{harvnb|Finney|1963|p=5}}.</ref>
Pandangan lain juga disampaikan oleh Andrew Sharp yang menantang hipotesis "visi kepahlawanan", dengan menegaskan bahwa keahlian maritim Polinesia sangat terbatas di bidang eksplorasi dan sebagai hasilnya penyelesaian Polinesia merupakan hasil dari keberuntungan, kenampakan pulau acak, dan persinggahan, bukan sebagai penjelajahan terorganisir atas kolonisasi. Setelah itu pengetahuan lisan yang diwariskan dari generasi ke generasi memungkinkan penguasaan penjelajahan akhir antara lokasi yang diketahui.<ref name="Sharp_1963">{{harvnb|Sharp|1963}}.</ref> Penilaian ulang Sharp menyebabkan sejumlah besar kontroversi dan menyebabkan kebuntuan antara pandangan romantis dan skeptis.<ref name="Finney_1963_5" />
Another view was presented by Andrew Sharp who challenged the "heroic vision" hypothesis, asserting instead that Polynesian maritime expertise was severely limited in the field of exploration and that as a result the settlement of Polynesia had been the result of luck, random island sightings, and drifting, rather than as organized voyages of colonization. Thereafter the oral knowledge passed down for generations allowed for eventual mastery of traveling between known locations.<ref name="Sharp_1963">{{harvnb|Sharp|1963}}.</ref> Sharp's reassessment caused a huge amount of controversy and led to a stalemate between the romantic and the skeptical views.<ref name="Finney_1963_5" />
[[File:Double hulled vaka, Rarotonga 2010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|DoubledMenggandakan hulledlambung kapal ''vaka'' in [[Rarotonga]], 2010.]]
ByPada thepertengahan mid-to-latehingga 1960sakhir ittahun was1960-an; timemerupakan formasa apendekatan new hands-on approachbaru. AnthropologistAntropolog [[David Henry Lewis|David Lewis]] sailedyang berlayar hisdengan catamarankatamaran fromdari Tahiti toke NewSelandia ZealandBaru usingmenggunakan [[stellarnavigasi navigationbintang]] withouttanpa instrumentsinstrumen apapun.<ref name="Lewis_1976">{{harvnb|Lewis|1976}}.</ref> AnthropologistAntropolog anddan historiansejarawan [[Ben Finney]] builtmembangun ''Nalehia'', ayaitu {{convert|40|ft|m|adj=on}}sebuah replicareplika ofdengan apanjang Hawaiian40 kaki dari [[OutriggerKano outrigger canoe|doubleKano canoeganda]]. Finney testedmenguji thekano canoedalam inserangkaian apercobaan seriesberlayar ofserta sailingmendayung anddi paddlingperairan experiments in Hawaiian watersHawaii. AtPada thesaat sameyang timesama, ethnographicpenelitian researchetnografi indi theKepulauan Caroline Islands indi [[MicronesiaMikronesia]] broughtmengungkap tofakta lightbahwa themetode factnavigasi thatbintang traditionaltradisional stellarmasih navigationalsangat methodsbanyak weredigunakan stillsehari-hari verydi much in everyday use theresana. TheBangunan buildingdan andpengujian testing ofkano-kano proa canoes (''[[Wa (watercraft)|wa]]'') inspiredterinspirasi byoleh traditionaldesain designstradisional, thedengan harnessingmemanfaatkan ofpengetahuan knowledgedari fromahli skilled MicronesiansMikronesia, as welldi asmana voyagespelayarannya usingmenggunakan stellarnavigasi navigationbintang, allowedyang practicalmemungkinkan conclusionsadanya aboutkesimpulan thepraktis seaworthinesstentang andkelayakan handlingkondisi capabilitiessuatu oflautan traditionalserta Polynesiankemampuan canoesmenggunakan andkano allowedtradisional aPolinesia betteryang understandingmembutuhkan ofpemahaman thelebih navigationalbaik methodstentang thatmetode werenavigasi likelyyang tomungkin havedigunakan beenoleh usedorang-orang byPolinesia theserta Polynesiansbagaimana andmereka, ofsebagai how theymanusia, asmenyesuaikan people,diri weredengan adaptedpelayaran todi seafaringlautan.<ref name="Finney_1963_69">{{harvnb|Finney|1963|pp=6–9}}.</ref> RecentKreasi re-creationsulang ofterbaru Polynesiandari voyagingpelayaran havePolinesia usedtelah methodsmenggunakan basedmetode largelyyang onsebagian Micronesianbesar methodsdidasarkan andpada themetode teachingsMikronesia ofserta apengajaran Micronesianseorang navigator Mikronesia, [[Mau Piailug]].<ref>See also: [[PolynesianMasyarakat VoyagingPelayaran SocietyPolynesia]], [[Hokulea]].</ref>
-->
== Catatan ==
| year = 1994
}}.
{{refend}}
== Lihat pula ==
* [[Fautasi]]
* [[Hokulea]]
|
