Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab: Perbedaan antara revisi

<!--By the end of the First Temple period the [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic script]], a separate descendant of the Phoenician script, became widespread throughout the region, gradually displacing Paleo-Hebrew.<ref name="yb" /> The oldest documents that have been found in the Aramaic Script are fragments of the scrolls of Exodus, Samuel, and Jeremiah found among the Dead Sea scrolls, dating from the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries&nbsp;BCE.<ref name="ysq">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=42,45,47–50}}</ref> It seems that the earlier biblical books were originally written in the Paleo-Hebrew script, while the later books were written directly in the later Assyrian script.<ref name="tscript" /> Some Qumran texts written in the Assyrian script write the [[tetragrammaton]] and some other divine names in Paleo-Hebrew, and this practice is also found in several Jewish-Greek biblical translations.<ref name="tscript" /><ref group="nb">Though some of these translations wrote the tetragrammaton in the square script See {{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|p=220}}</ref> While spoken Hebrew continued to evolve into [[Mishnaic Hebrew]], the scribal tradition for writing the Torah gradually developed.<ref name="ybook">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=65,84–91}}</ref> A number of regional "book-hand" styles developed for the purpose of Torah manuscripts and occasionally other literary works, distinct from the calligraphic styles used mainly for private purposes.<ref name="ybook" /> The [[Mizrahi]] and [[Ashkenazi]] book-hand styles were later adapted to printed fonts after the invention of the printing press.<ref name="ybook" /> The modern [[Hebrew alphabet]], also known as the Assyrian or Square script, is a descendant of the Aramaic alphabet.<ref name="yb" />-->

 

 

Abjad Ibrani asli hanya terdiri dari [[konsonan|huruf mati (konsonan)]], tetapi lambat laun huruf-huruf {{lang|hbo|א|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ה|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ו|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|י|rtl=yes}}, juga digunakan untuk mengindikasikan huruf hidup (vokal atau ''vowel''), dikenal sebagai ''matres lectionis'' ketika digunakan dalam fungsi ini.<ref name="s17" /><ref name="to1" /> Diyakini bahwa ini merupakan hasil perkembangan fonetik: misalnya, *bayt ('rumah'; 'bait') bergeser menjadi {{lang|hbo|בֵּית|rtl=yes}} dalam [[:en:construct state|keadaan konstruk]] tetapi mempertahankan ejaannya.<ref name="b6">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=6}}</ref> Tidak ada contoh ortografi Ibrani awal yang ditemukan, tetapi teks [[bahasa Fenisia|Fenisia]] yang lebih tua dan [[:en:Moabite language|bahasa Moab]] menunjukkan bagaimana penulisan bahasa Ibrani masa Bait Suci Pertama.<ref name="to1">{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|pp=221–223}}</ref><!-- Phoenician inscriptions from the 10th century&nbsp;BCE do not indicate matres lectiones in the middle or the end of a word, for example {{lang|hbo|לפנ|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|ז|rtl=yes}} for later {{lang|hbo|לפני|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|זה|rtl=yes}}, similarly to the Hebrew [[Gezer Calendar]], which has for instance {{lang|hbo|שערמ|rtl=yes}} for {{lang|hbo|שעורים|rtl=yes}} and possibly {{lang|hbo|ירח|rtl=yes}} for {{rtl-lang|he|ירחו}}.<ref name="to1" /> Matres lectionis were later added word-finally, for instance the [[Mesha inscription]] has {{rtl-lang|he|בללה, בנתי}} for later {{rtl-lang|he|בלילה, בניתי}}; however at this stage they were not yet used word-medially, compare [[Siloam inscription]] {{lang|hbo|זדה|rtl=yes}} versus {{lang|hbo|אש|rtl=yes}} (for later {{rtl-lang|he|איש}}).<ref name="to1" /> The relative terms ''defective'' and ''full''/''plene'' are used to refer to alternative spellings of a word with less or more matres lectionis, respectively.<ref name="to1" /><ref group="nb">[[Ktiv male]], the Hebrew term for full spelling, has become de rigueur in Modern Hebrew.</ref>

! colspan="2" | [[:en:Uvular consonant|Uvular]]

! [[:en:Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]

|-

| {{IPA|m}}

| colspan="3" | {{IPA|n}}

| {{IPA link|ʔ}}

|-

| {{IPA|b}}

| colspan="3" | {{IPA|d}}

|

|-

|

| colspan="3" | {{IPA|tʼ}}<ref name="b69" /><ref name="r" />

|

|-

| style="background:#CAFF70" | {{IPA|ɸ}}

| style="background:#CAFF70" | {{IPA|θ}}

|

|-

|

| colspan="3" | {{IPA|sʼ/ʦʼ}}<ref name="b69" />

{|class="wikitable"

!

|-

| align=center | {{IPA|i}} {{IPA|iː}}

| align=center | {{IPA|u}} {{IPA|uː}}

|-

| align=center | {{IPA|e}} {{IPA|eː}}

| align=center | ({{IPA|o}})¹

|-

| align=center | {{IPA|a}} {{IPA|aː}}

| align=center | {{IPA|ɒ}} {{IPA|ɒː}}

|

|

|

#{{small|merges with {{IPA|/a/}} or {{IPA|/o/}} in the Palestinian tradition}}<ref name="b118-119" /><ref name="seph" group="nb" /><ref name="y16">{{Harvcoltxt|Yahalom|1997|p=16}}</ref>

#{{small|The Tiberian tradition has the reduced vowel phonemes {{IPA|/ă ɔ̆/}} and marginal {{IPA|/ɛ̆/}}, while Palestinian and Babylonian have one, {{IPA|/ə/}} (pronounced as {{IPA|[ɛ]}} in later Palestinian Hebrew)}}

 

===== Later developments =====

 

 

 

Various more specific conditioned shifts of vowel quality have also occurred. Diphthongs were frequently monopthongized, but the scope and results of this shift varied among dialects. In particular, the Samaria ostraca show {{IPA|/jeːn/}} < {{IPA|*/jajn/}} < {{IPA|*/wajn/}}<ref group="nb">For {{IPA|/w-/}} > {{IPA|/j-/}}, see above. The Semitic form {{IPA|*/wajn-/}} was borrowed into [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] as {{IPA|*/wojn-om/}}, eventually yielding Latin ''vīnum'' and English ''wine''.</ref> for Southern {{IPA|/jajin/}} ('wine'), and Samaritan Hebrew shows instead the shift {{IPA|*/aj/}} > {{IPA|/iː/}}.<ref name="sclas" /><ref name="ssam" /> Original {{IPA|*/u/}} tended to shift to {{IPA|/i/}} (e.g. {{lang|hbo|אֹמֶר|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|אִמְרָה|rtl=yes}} 'word'; {{lang|hbo|חוץ|rtl=yes}} 'outside' and {{lang|hbo|חיצון|rtl=yes}} 'outer') beginning in the second half of the second millennium&nbsp;BC.<ref name="sdis">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=138–139}}</ref> This was carried through completely in Samaritan Hebrew but met more resistance in other traditions such as the Babylonian and Qumran traditions.<ref name="sdis" /> [[Philippi's law]] is the process by which original {{IPA|*/i/}} in closed stressed syllables shifts to {{IPA|/a/}} (e.g. {{IPA|/*bint/}} > {{lang|hbo|בַּת|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/bat/}} 'daughter'), or sometimes in the Tiberian tradition {{IPA|/ɛ/}} (e.g. {{IPA|/*ʔamint/}} > {{lang|hbo|אֱמֶת|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ɛ̆mɛt/}} 'truth').<ref name="bphil">{{harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=133–136}}</ref><ref group="nb">Note that this {{IPA|/a/}} does not become {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in pause, thus {{lang|hbo|בת|rtl=yes}} has a patah vowel in pause as well as in context. {{cite book|title=Eblaitica: essays on the Ebla archives and Eblaite language, Volume 1|year=1987|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-0-931464-34-8|page=20}}</ref> This is absent in the transcriptions of the Secunda,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=66}}</ref> but there is evidence that the law's onset predates the Secunda. In the Samaritan tradition Philippi's law is applied consistently, e.g. {{IPA|*/libː-u/}} > {{IPA|/lab/}} ('heart').<ref name="bhp">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=79}}</ref><ref group="nb">The only known case where Philippi's Law does not apply is in the word {{lang|hbo|קן|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/qen/}} < {{IPA|*/qinn-u/}} ('nest'). The shift {{IPA|*/i/}} > {{IPA|/a/}} has been extended by analogy to similar forms, e.g. {{IPA|*/ʃim-u/}} > {{IPA|/ʃam/}} ('name'; but {{IPA|*/ʃim-u/}} > {{IPA|/ʃem/}} 'reputation'!). {{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=76,79}}</ref> In some traditions the short vowel {{IPA|/*a/}} tended to shift to {{IPA|/i/}} in unstressed closed syllables: this is known as the [[law of attenuation]]. It is common in the Tiberian tradition, e.g. {{IPA|*/ʃabʕat/}} > Tiberian {{lang|hbo|שִבְעָה|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʃivˈʕɔ/}} ('seven'), but exceptions are frequent.<ref name="b132">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=132}}</ref> It is less common in the Babylonian vocalization, e.g. {{IPA|/ʃabʕɔ/}} ('seven'), and differences in Greek and Latin transcriptions demonstrate that it began quite late.<ref name="b132" /> Attenuation generally did not occur before {{IPA|/i⁓e/}}, e.g. Tiberian {{lang|hbo|מַפְתֵּחַ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/mafˈteaħ/}} ('key') versus {{lang|hbo|מִפְתַּח|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/mifˈtaħ/}} ('opening [construct]'), and often was blocked before a geminate, e.g. {{lang|hbo|מתנה|rtl=yes}} ('gift').<ref name="b132" /> Attenuation is rarely present in Samaritan Hebrew, e.g. {{lang|hbo|מקדש|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/maqdaʃ/}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=81}}</ref><ref group="nb">Verbal forms such as {{lang|hbo|יפקד|rtl=yes}} = Samaritan {{IPA|/jifqɒd/}} < {{IPA|*/jafqud/}} may be examples of Barth's law rather than attenuation.</ref> In the Tiberian tradition {{IPA|/e i o u/}} take offglide {{IPA|/a/}} before {{IPA|/h ħ ʕ/}}.<ref name="b83">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=83}}</ref><ref group="nb">This is known as ''pataḥ furtivum'', literally 'stolen pataḥ' and perhaps a mistranslation of Hebrew {{lang|hbo|פתח גנובה|rtl=yes}} ('pataḥ of the stolen [letter]'), as if {{lang|hbo|אֵ|rtl=yes}} were being inserted. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=83}}</ref> This is absent in the Secunda and in Samaritan Hebrew but present in the transcriptions of Jerome.<ref name="ssam">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=156}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=43,133}}</ref> In the Tiberian tradition an ultrashort [[echo vowel]] is sometimes added to clusters where the first element is a guttural, e.g. {{lang|hbo|יַאֲזִין|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jaʔăzin/}} ('he will listen') {{lang|hbo|פָּעֳלוֹ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/pɔʕɔ̆lo/}} ('his work') but {{lang|hbo|יַאְדִּיר|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jaʔdir/}} ('he will make glorious') {{lang|hbo|רָחְבּוֹ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʀɔħbo/}} 'its breadth'.<ref name="b84-85" /><ref group="nb">It is evident that this epenthesis must have been a late phenomenon, since a short vowel preceding a guttural is preserved even though it becomes in an open syllable, see {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=85}}.</ref><ref group="nb">This is less common when the consonant following the guttural is a [[begadkefat]] letter, e.g. {{lang|hbo|תֵּחְבֹּל|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/taħbol/}} ('you take in pledge'). This suggests that begadkefat spirantization was no longer automatic by the time that this epenthesis occurred, see {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=79}}</ref><!--loss of final short vowels – differences bw/ nouns and verbs--><!-- {{IPA|/i/}} > {{IPA|/a/}} / gutterals -->