Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab: Perbedaan antara revisi
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Baris 41:
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</ref> yang menggunakan istilah {{Hebrew|שפת כנען}} (''sefat kena'an'', artinya bahasa Kanaan) atau {{Hebrew|יהודית}} (''Yehudit'', artinya bahasa Yudea) untuk menyebut bahasanya,<ref name=Barton/> namun nama tersebut dipakai dalam teks-teks [[bahasa Yunani Kuno|bahasa Yunani]] dan [[:en:Mishnaic Hebrew|Ibrani Mishnah]].<ref name=Barton/>
== Klasifikasi ==
<!--{{See also|Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic languages|Canaanite languages}}-->
{{IPA notice}}
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;"
|+Refleks konsonan Proto-Semitik dalam bahasa Ibrani<ref name="bmerge">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=25–40}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Frank|2003|p=12}}</ref>
! rowspan="2" | Proto-Semitik
! rowspan="2" | IPA
! rowspan="2" | Ibrani
! rowspan="2" | Aram
! rowspan="2" | Arab
! colspan="4" | Contoh
|-
! Ibrani
! Aram
! Arab
! Arti
|-
! [[Ḏāl|*ḏ]]
! {{IPA|*/ð/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/z/}} {{lang|hbo|ז|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/d/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|ד|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/ð/}} {{lang|ar|ذ|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|'''ז'''הב|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|'''ד'''הב|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|ذهب|rtl=yes}}
| 'emas'
|-
! [[Zayin|*z]]
! {{IPA|*/z/}}
| {{IPA|/z/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|ז|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/z/}} {{lang|ar|ز|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|מא'''ז'''נים|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|מא'''ז'''נין|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|موازين|rtl=yes}}
| 'skala'
|-
! [[Shin (letter)|*š]]
! {{IPA|*/ʃ/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʃ/}} {{lang|hbo|שׁ|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/ʃ/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|שׁ|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/s/}} {{lang|ar|س|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|'''ש'''נה|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|'''ש'''נה|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|سنة|rtl=yes}}
| 'tahun'
|-
! [[Ṯāʾ|*ṯ]]
! {{IPA|*/θ/}}
| {{IPA|/t/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|ת|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/θ/}} {{lang|ar|ث|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|'''ש'''לו'''ש'''ה|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|'''ת'''ל'''ת'''ה|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|ثلاثة|rtl=yes}}
| 'tiga'
|-
! [[Ẓāʾ|*ṱ]]
! {{IPA|*/θʼ/}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/sˤ/}} {{lang|hbo|צ|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/tˤ/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|ט|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/ðˤ/}} {{lang|ar|ظ|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|'''צ'''ל|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|'''ט'''לה|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|ظل|rtl=yes}}
| 'bayangan'
|-
! [[Ḍād|*ṣ́]]
! {{IPA|*/ɬʼ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʕ/}} {{lang|hbo|ע|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/dˤ/}} {{lang|ar|ض|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|אר'''ץ'''|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|אר'''ע'''|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|أرض|rtl=yes}}
| 'tanah'
|-
! [[Tsade|*ṣ]]
! {{IPA|*/sʼ/}}
| {{IPA|/sˤ/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|צ|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/sˤ/}} {{lang|ar|ص|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|'''צ'''רח|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|'''צ'''רח|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|صرخ|rtl=yes}}
| 'jeritan'
|}
<!--Biblical Hebrew is a [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic language]] from the [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite subgroup]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=65}}</ref>{{sfn|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=29}}
As Biblical Hebrew evolved from the [[Proto-Semitic language]] it underwent a number of consonantal mergers parallel with those in other Canaanite languages.<ref name="bmerge" /><ref name="sclas" /><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dolgopolsky|1999|pp=57–59}}</ref><ref group="nb">However it is noteworthy that Akkadian shares many of these sound shifts but is less closely related to Hebrew than Aramaic. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=19}}</ref> There is no evidence that these mergers occurred after the adaptation of the Hebrew alphabet.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=76}}</ref><ref group="nb">However, for example, when Old Aramaic borrowed the Canaanite alphabet it still had interdentals, but marked them with what they merged with in Canaanite. For instance 'ox' was written {{lang|hbo|שר|rtl=yes}} but pronounced with an initial {{IPA|/θ/}}. The same phenomenon also occurred when the Arabs adopted the Nabatean alphabet. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=74–75}}.</ref>
As a Northwest Semitic language, Hebrew shows the shift of initial {{IPA|*/w/}} to {{IPA|/j/}}, a similar independent pronoun system to the other Northwest Semitic languages (with third person pronouns never containing {{IPA|/ʃ/}}), some archaic forms, such as {{IPA|/naħnu/}} 'we', first person singular pronominal suffix -i or -ya, and {{IPA|/n/}} commonly preceding pronominal suffixes.<ref name="sclas" /> Case endings are found in Northwest Semitic languages in the second millennium BCE, but disappear almost totally afterwards.<ref name="sclas" /> [[Mimation]] is absent in singular nouns, but is often retained in the plural, as in Hebrew.<ref name="sclas" />-->
Bahasa-bahasa Semitik Barat Laut membentuk suatu keberlangsungan (''continuum'') dialek pada [[Zaman Besi]] (1200–540 SM), dengan [[bahasa Fenisia]] dan Aram pada masing-masing ujungnya.<ref name="sclas">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=36–38,43–44,47–50}}</ref><ref name="scon" /> Bahasa Ibrani digolongkan bersama bahasa Fenisia dalam subgrup Kanaan, yang juga meliputi [[:en:Ammonite language|bahasa Amon]], [[:en:Edomite language|Edom]], dan [[:en:Moab#Language|Moab]].<ref name="sclas" /> Bahasa Moab dapat dianggap sebagai suatu dialek bahasa Ibrani, meskipun memiliki ciri-ciri khusus bahasa Aram.<ref name="scon">{{Harvcoltxt|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|p=8}}</ref><ref name="bmoab">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=18}}</ref> Meskipun Ugaritik menunjukkan afinitas kuat dalam bahasa Ibrani untuk struktur puisi, kosa kata, dan sejumlah gramatika, tetapi tidak mempunyai sejumlah ciri Kanaan (seperti [[:en:Canaanite shift|pergeseran Kanaan]] dan pergeseran {{IPA|*/ð/}} > {{IPA|/z/}}), serta kemiripannya lebih mungkin dihasilkan baik dari kontak maupun pelestarian ''archaisme''.<ref name="b21">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=21}}</ref>
<!--Hebrew underwent the Canaanite shift, where Proto-Semitic {{IPA|/aː/}} tended to shift to {{IPA|/oː/}}, perhaps when stressed.<ref name="sclas" /><ref name="Blau 2010 136-137">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=136–137}}</ref> Hebrew also shares with the Canaanite languages the shifts {{IPA|*/ð/}} > {{IPA|/z/}}, {{IPA|*/θʼ/}} and {{IPA|*/ɬʼ/}} > {{IPA|/sʼ/}}, widespread reduction of diphthongs, and full assimilation of non-final /n/ to the following consonant if word final, i.e. {{lang|hbo|בת|rtl=yes}} /bat/ from *bant.<ref name="sclas" /> There is also evidence of a rule of assimilation of /y/ to the following coronal consonant in pre-tonic position, shared by Hebrew, Phoenician and Aramic.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Garnier|Jacques|2012}}</ref>
Typical Canaanite words in Hebrew include: {{lang|hbo|גג|rtl=yes}} "roof" {{lang|hbo|שלחן|rtl=yes}} "table" {{lang|hbo|חלון|rtl=yes}} "window" {{lang|hbo|ישן|rtl=yes}} "old (thing)" {{lang|hbo|זקן|rtl=yes}} "old (person)" and {{lang|hbo|גרש|rtl=yes}} "expel".<ref name="sclas" /> Morphological Canaanite features in Hebrew include the masculine plural marker {{lang|hbo|-ם}}, first person singular pronoun {{lang|hbo|אנכי|rtl=yes}}, interrogative pronoun {{lang|hbo|מי|rtl=yes}}, definite article {{lang|hbo|ה-}} (appearing in the first millennium BCE), and third person plural feminine verbal marker {{rtl-lang|he|ת-}}.<ref name="sclas" />
== Eras ==
Biblical Hebrew as preserved in the [[Hebrew Bible]] is composed of multiple linguistic layers. The consonantal skeleton of the text is the most ancient, while the vocalization and [[cantillation]] are later additions reflecting a later stage of the language.<ref name="b10" /> These additions were added after 600 CE; Hebrew had already ceased being used as a spoken language around 200 CE.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=7, 11}}</ref> Biblical Hebrew as reflected in the consonantal text of the Bible and in extra-biblical inscriptions may be subdivided by era.
The oldest form of Biblical Hebrew, Archaic Hebrew, is found in poetic sections of the Bible and inscriptions dating to around 1000 BCE, the early [[Kingdoms of Israel and Judah|Monarchic Period]].<ref name="sb52">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=52}}</ref><ref name="r66">{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=66}}</ref> This stage is also known as Old Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew, and is the oldest stratum of Biblical Hebrew. The oldest known artifacts of Archaic Biblical Hebrew are various sections of the [[Tanakh]], including the [[Song of Moses]] ([[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 15) and the [[Song of Deborah]] ([[Book of Judges|Judges]] 5).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=56}}</ref> Biblical poetry uses a number of distinct lexical items, for example {{lang|hbo|חזה|rtl=yes}} for prose {{lang|hbo|ראה|rtl=yes}} 'see', {{lang|hbo|כביר|rtl=yes}} for {{lang|hbo|גדול|rtl=yes}} 'great'.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=60}}</ref> Some have cognates in other Northwest Semitic languages, for example {{lang|hbo|פעל|rtl=yes}} 'do' and {{lang|hbo|חָרוּץ|rtl=yes}} 'gold' which are common in Canaanite and Ugaritic.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=61}}</ref> Grammatical differences include the use of {{lang|hbo|זה|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|זוֹ|rtl=yes}}, and {{lang|hbo|זוּ|rtl=yes}} as relative particles, negative {{lang|hbo|בל|rtl=yes}}, and various differences in verbal and pronominal morphology and syntax.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=57–60}}</ref>
Later pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew (such as is found in prose sections of the Pentateuch, [[Nevi'im]], and some [[Ketuvim]]) is known as 'Biblical Hebrew proper' or 'Standard Biblical Hebrew'.<ref name="sb52" /><ref name="r66" /> This is dated to the period from the 8th to the 6th century BCE. In contrast to Archaic Hebrew, Standard Biblical Hebrew is more consistent in using the definite article {{lang|hbo|ה-}}, the accusative marker {{lang|hbo|את|rtl=yes}}, distinguishing between simple and [[waw-consecutive]] verb forms, and in using particles like {{lang|hbo|אשר|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|כי|rtl=yes}} rather than [[asyndeton]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=71}}</ref>
Biblical Hebrew from after the Babylonian exile in 587 BCE is known as 'Late Biblical Hebrew'.<ref name="sb52" /><ref name="r66" /> Late Biblical Hebrew shows Aramaic influence in phonology, morphology, and lexicon, and this trend is also evident in the later-developed Tiberian vocalization system.<ref name="sb55">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=55}}</ref>
Qumran Hebrew, attested in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] from ca. 200 BCE to 70 CE, is a continuation of Late Biblical Hebrew.<ref name="r66" /> Qumran Hebrew may be considered an intermediate stage between Biblical Hebrew and Mishnaic Hebrew, though Qumran Hebrew shows its own idiosyncratic dialectal features.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=132}}</ref>
== Dialects ==
Dialect variation in Biblical Hebrew is attested to by the well-known [[shibboleth]] incident of Judges 12:6, where [[Jephthah]]'s forces from [[Gilead]] caught Ephraimites trying to cross the Jordan river by making them say {{lang|hbo|שִׁבֹּ֤לֶת|rtl=yes}} ('ear of corn')<ref name="bshib">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=8,40–41}}</ref> The Ephraimites' identity was given away by their pronunciation: {{rtl-lang|he|סִבֹּ֤לֶת}}.<ref name="bshib" /> The apparent conclusion is that the Ephraimite dialect had {{IPA|/s/}} for standard {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.<ref name="bshib" /> As an alternative explanation, it has been suggested that the proto-Semitic phoneme {{IPA|*/θ/}}, which shifted to {{IPA|/ʃ/}} in most dialects of Hebrew, may have been retained in the Hebrew of the trans-Jordan.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=70}}</ref><ref group="nb">As a consequence this would leave open the possibility that other proto-Semitic phonemes (such as *{{IPA|/ð/}}) may have been preserved regionally at one point See {{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=72}}</ref> However, there is evidence that the word {{lang|hbo|שִׁבֹּ֤לֶת|rtl=yes}} had initial consonant *{{IPA|/ʃ/}} in proto-Semitic, contradicting this theory.<ref name="bshib" />
Hebrew as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel, known also as [[Israelian Hebrew]], shows phonological, lexical, and grammatical differences from southern dialects.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1999|p=255}}</ref> The Northern dialect spoken around Samaria shows more frequent simplification of {{IPA|/aj/}} into {{IPA|/eː/}} as attested by the Samaria ostraca (8th century BCE), e.g. {{lang|hbo|ין|rtl=yes}} (= {{IPA|/jeːn/}} < {{IPA|*/jajn/}} 'wine'), while the Southern (Judean) dialect instead adds in an [[epenthetic vowel]] /i/, added halfway through the first millennium BCE ({{lang|hbo|יין|rtl=yes}} = {{IPA|/ˈjajin/}}).<ref name="sclas" /><ref group="nb">Such contraction is also found in Ugaritic, the El-Amarna letters, and in Phoenician, while the anaptyctic vowel is found in Old Aramaic and Deir Alla. {{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=44}}</ref><ref name="bdip" /> The [[paranomasia|word play]] in [[Book of Amos|Amos]] 8:1–2 {{lang|hbo|כְּלוּב קַ֫יִץ... בָּא הַקֵּץ}} may reflect this: given that Amos was addressing the population of the Northern Kingdom, the vocalization *קֵיץ would be more forceful.<ref name="bdip">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=8,96–97}}</ref> Other possible Northern features include use of {{lang|hbo|שֶ-}} 'who, that', forms like {{lang|hbo|דֵעָה|rtl=yes}} 'to know' rather than {{lang|hbo|דַעַת|rtl=yes}} and infinitives of certain verbs of the form {{lang|hbo|עֲשוֹ|rtl=yes}} 'to do' rather than {{rtl-lang|he|עֲשוֹת}}.<ref name="b8" /> The Samaria ostraca also show {{lang|hbo|שת|rtl=yes}} for standard {{lang|hbo|שנה|rtl=yes}} 'year', as in Aramaic.<ref name="b8">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=8}}</ref>
The guttural phonemes {{IPA|/ħ ʕ h ʔ/}} merged over time in some dialects.<ref name="sgut">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=83, 137–138}}</ref> This was found in Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew, but [[Jerome]] attested to the existence of contemporaneous Hebrew speakers who still distinguished pharyngeals.<ref name="sgut" /> Samaritan Hebrew also shows a general attrition of these phonemes, though {{IPA|/ʕ ħ/}} are occasionally preserved as {{IPA|[ʕ]}}.<ref name="samgut">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=38–39}}</ref>-->
== Ortografi ==
<!--{{Main|Biblical Hebrew orthography}}-->
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