[[Berkas:Bomberg Talmud.JPG|thumb|Halaman pertama dari [[Talmud Babilonia]], Traktat Berachot, folio 2a]]
'''Talmud''' ([[bahasa Ibrani]]: תלמוד) adalah catatan tentang diskusi para [[rabi]] yang berkaitan dengan [[Halakha|hukum Yahudi]], [[etika Yahudi|etika]], kebiasaan dan sejarah. Talmud mempunyai dua komponen: [[Mishnah]], yang merupakan kumpulan Hukum Lisan Yudaisme pertama yang ditulis; dan [[Gemara]], diskusi mengenai Mishnah dan tulisan-tulisan yang terkait dengan [[Tannaim]] yang sering membahas topik-topik lain dan secara luas menguraikan [[Tanakh]]. Istilah ''Talmud'' dan ''Gemara'' seringkali digunakan bergantian. Gemara adalah dasar dari semua aturan dari [[Halakha|hukum rabinik]] dan banyak dikutip dalam [[literatur rabinik]] yang lain. Keseluruhan Talmud biasanya juga dirujuk sebagai (singkatan [[bahasa Ibrani]] untuk ''shishah sedarim'', atau "enam tatanan" Mishnah).
== Asal-usul ==
Studi keyahudian pada mulanya tidak terulis (lisan). Para rabi menguraikan dan memperdebatkan hukum serta membahas [[Perjanjian Lama|Alkitab Ibrani]] tanpa bantuan karya-karya tertulis (selain dari kitab-kitab di dalam Kitab Suci sendiri.) Namun, situasi ini berubah secara drastis terutama sebagai akibat penghancuran komunitas Yahudi pada tahun 70 M, dan pergolakan norma-norma sosial dan hukum Yahudi yang ditimbulkannya. Karena para rabi dituntut menghadapi realitas yang baru—yang utamanya Yudaisme tanpa Bait Suci dan Yudea tanpa otonomi—membanjirlah wacana hukum dan sistem studi oral yang lama tidak dapat lagi dipertahankan. Pada masa inilah wacana rabinik mulai dicatat secara tertulis.
Hukum lisan tertua yang dicatat kemungkinan dalam bentuk [[midrash]]i. Di sini diskusi halakhik disusun sebagai tafsiran [[eksegesis|eksegetis]] terhadap [[Torah|Pentateukh]]. Tetapi sebuah bentuk alternatifnya, yang disusun menurut topiknya dan bukan menurut ayat-ayat Alkitab, menjadi dominan pada sekitar tahun 200 M., ketika [[Judah haNasi|Rabi Judah haNasi]] meredaksi [[Mishnah]] (משנה).
== Mishnah ==
''Mishnah'' (משנה) adalah kompilasi pandangan dan perdebatan hukum. Namanya sendiri berarti "redaksi", dari kata kerja ''shanah'' שנה, yang berarti "mengulangi" atau "meninjau". Nama ini mungkin merupakan petunjuk pada metode studi wacana rabinik dengan cara mengulang-ulang secara lisan.
Pernyataan-pernyataan dalam Mishnah biasanya singkat dan padat, mencatat pandangan-pandangan singkat dari para rabi yang memperdebatkan sebuah topic, atau mencatat sebuah peraturan yang tidak disebutkan sumbernya, yang tampaknya mewakili sebuah pandangan consensus. Para rabi Mishnah dikenal sebagai ''Tannaim'' (tunggal: ''Tanna'' תנא).
Berbeda dengan Midrash, Mishna hanyalah sebuah catatan dari kumpulan halakha (yang lainnya adalah [[Tosefta]]), namun demikian, penataannya menurut topic menjadi kerangka bagi Talmud secara keseluruhan.
=== Struktur dan isi ===
Mishna terdiri atas enam tatanan (''sedarim'', tunggal: ''seder'' סדר). Masing-masing dari tatanannya mengandung antara 7 dan 12 traktat, yang disebut ''masechtot'' (tunggal: ''masechet'' מסכת; harafiah: "jaringan"). Masing-masing ''masechet'' dibagi menjadi bab-bab (''peraqim'') yang terdiri dari unit-unit yang lebih kecil yang disebut ''mishnayot'' (tunggal: ''mishnah''). Tidak setiap traktat dalam Mishnah mempunyai padanan Gemaranya. Selain itu, tatanan traktat dalam Talmud berbeda dalam kasus-kasus tertentu dengan tatanan di dalam Mishnah; lih. diskusi pada masing-masing Seder.
*Tatanan Pertama: ''[[Zeraim]]'' ("Benih"). 11 traktat. MEmbahas doa dan berkat, tithes, dan hukum-hukum pertanian .
*Tatanan Kedua: ''[[Moed]]'' ("Hari-hari Raya"). 12 traktat. Berkaitan dengan hukum-hukum Sabat dan Hari-hari Raya.
*Tatanan Ketiga: ''[[Nashim]]'' ("Perempuan"). 7 traktat. Berkaitan dengan pernikahan dan perceraian, beberapa bentuk sumpah dan hukum-hukum tentang orang Nazir.
*Tatanan Keempat: ''[[Nezikin]]'' ("Ganti rugi"). 10 traktat. Berkaitan dengan hukum sipil dan kriminal, cara kerja pengadilan dan sumpah.
*Tatanan Kelima: ''[[Kodashim]]'' ("Hal-hal yang suci"). 11 traktat. Berkaitan dengan ritus-ritus korban, [[Bait Suci di Yerusalem|Bait Suci]], dan hukum-hukum yang mengatur apa yang boleh dan tak boleh dimakan .
*Tatanan Keenam: ''[[Tohorot]]'' ("Kesucian"). 12 traktat. Berkaitan dengan hukum-hukum ritual kesucian.
{{mishnah}}
== Beraita ==
Selain Mishnah, karya-karya Tannaim lainnya dicatat pada kira-kira waktu yang bersamaan atau tak lama sesudah itu. Gemara seringkali merujuk kepada pernyataan-pernyataan Tannaim untuk membandingkannya dengan apa yang terdapat di dalam Mishna dan mendukung atau membantah proposisi-proposisi dari [[Amoraim]]. Semua sumber Tannaim non-Mishna disebut [[beraita|''beraitot'']] (harafiah: bahan-bahan luar, "Karya-karya di luar Mishna"; tunggal: beraita ברייתא).
Beraita mencakup [[Tosefta]], sebuah kumpulan Tannaim dari [[halakha]] yang sejajar dengan Mishna; dan [[Midrash Halakha]], khususnya [[Midrash#Tannaim|Mekhilta, Sifra dan Sifre]].
== Gemara ==
:''Lihat [[Gemara]] untuk diskusi lebih lanjut.''
Dalam tiga abad setelah peredaksian Mishna, para rabi di seluruh Palestina dan Babilonia menganalisis, memperdebatkan, dan mendiskusikan karya itu. Diskusi-diskusi ini membentuk [[Gemara]] (גמרא). Gemara terutama terpusat pada upaya menjelaskan dan menguraikan pandangan-pandangan dari Tannaim. Para rabi Gemara dikenal sebagai [[Amoraim]] (tunggal: ''Amora'' אמורא). ''Gemara'' berarti “kesempurnaan,” dari ''gamar'' גמר : [[bahasa Ibrani]] menyelesaikan, menyempurnakan; [[bahasa Aram]] mempelajari.
=== Metodologi ===
Banyak dari Gemara terdiri atas analisis hukum. Titik tolak untuk analisis ini biasanya adalah suatu pernyataan legal yang ditemukan di dalam sebuah Mishna. Pernyataan ini kemudian dianalisis dan dibandingkan dengan pernyataan-pernyataan lain dalam [[Dialektika|dialog dialektis]] di antara kedua pihak yang bertikai (yang seringkali anonim dan kadang-kadang metaforik), yang diistilahkan sebagai ''makshan'' (penanya) dan ''tartzan'' (penjawab).
Tanya jawb ini membentuk "bangunan" gemara; nama dari sebuah paragraf gemara adalah ''[[Gemara#Sugya|sugya]]'' (סוגיא; jamak:: ''sugyot''). ''Sugya'' biasanya terdiri atas sebuah uraian yang terinci dan didasarkan bukti tentang sebuah pernyataan mishnah.
Dalam sebuah ''sugya'' tertentu, pernyataan-pernyataan Kitab Suci, Tannaim dan Amoraim diangkat untuk mendukung berbagai pandangan. Dengan demikian, gemara akan menghasilkan ketidaksepakatan [[semantik]] antara Tannaim dan Amoraim (yang seringkali menyebutkan bahwa suatu pandangan dikeluarkan oleh seseorang yang berwibawa dan tentang bagaimana ia mestinya akan menjawab suatu pertanyaan), dan membandingkan padnangan-pandangan Mishna dengan bagian-bagian dari [[beraita]]. Jarang sekali perdebatan-perdebatan itu ditutup dengan resmi. Dalam banyak kasus, kata yang terakhir menentukan hukum praktisnya, meskipun ada banyak pengecualian terhadap prinsip ini. Lihat [[Gemara]] untuk pembahasan lebih lanjut.
=== Halakha dan Haggadah ===
Talmud terdiri dari banyak sekali bahan dan menyinggung banyak sekali topik. secara tradisional pernyataan-pernyataan talmudik dapat digolongkan ke dalam dua kategori besar, pernyataan-pernyataan ''Halakha'' dan ''Hagaddah''. Pernyataan-pernyataan Halakha adalah yang berkaitan langsung dengan soal-soal hukum dan praktik Yahudi ([[Halakha]]). Pernyataan-pernyataan Haggadah adalah yang tidak terkait secara legal, melainkan yang bersifat eksegetis, homiletis, etis, atau historis. Lihat [[Haggadah]] untuk pembahasan lebih lanjut.
== Talmud ==
Proses "Gemara" berlangsung di dua pusat Studi Yahudi yang utama, [[Israel]] dan [[Babilonia]]. Sejalan dengan itu, dua kumpulan analisis berkembang, dan dua karya ''Talmud'' pun terbentuk. Kompilasi yang lebih tua disebut Talmud Palestina atau ''Talmud Yerushalmi''. Talmud ini dikompilasi sekitar abad keempat di Palestina. Talmud Babilonia disusun sekitar tahun 500 M., meskipun ia terus disunting di kemudian hari. Kata "Talmud", ketika digunakan tanpa keterangan, biasanya merujuk kepada Talmud Babilonia.
=== ''Talmud Yerushalmi'' (Talmud Yerusalem) ===
{{main|Talmud Yerusalem}}
Gemara di sini adalah sinopsis dari hampir 200 tahun analisis atas Mishna di Akademi-akademi di Israel (terutama [[Tiberias]] dan [[Kaisaria]].) Karena lokasi Akademi-akademi ini, hukum-hukum agrikultur Tanah Israel dibahas secara sangat terinci. Menurut tradisi, Gemara diredaksi pada tahun 350M oleh Rav Muna dan Rav Yossi di Israel. Gemara dirujuk secara tradisional sebagai ''Talmud Yerushalmi'' (Talmud Yerusalem). Namun nama ini sebetulnya keliru, karena Gemara tidak ditulis di Yerusalem. Karena itu Gemara juga dikenal secara lebih akurat sebagai ''Talmud negeri Israel''.
Gemara ditulis dalam [[bahasa Ibrani]] dan dialek [[bahasa Aram|Aram]] barat yang berbeda dengan padanan Babilonianya.
''Talmud Bavli'' ("Talmud Babilonia") terdiri dari Mishnah dan Gemara Babilonia. Gemara ini adalah sinopsis dari analisis selama 300 tahun lebih atas Mishna di Akademi-akademi Babilonia. Menurut tradisi, Talmud ini diedit oleh dua orang bijak Babilonia, ''Rav Ashi'' dan ''Ravina''.
Pertanyaan tentang kapan Gemara akhirnya muncul dalam bentuknya yang sekarang belum terjawab oleh para ilmuwan modern. Sebagian dari teksnya baru mencapai bentuk finalnya setelah sekitar tahun [[700]]. Menurut tradisi, para rabi yang menyunting talmud setelah akhir periode Amora disebut ''Saboraim'' atau ''Rabanan Saborai''. Para sarjana modern juga menggunakan istilah ''Stammaim'' (bahasa Ibrani = sumber tertutup, kabur atau tidak disebutkan) untuk para pengarang pernyataan-pernyataan yang tidak disebutkan sumbernya dalam Gemara. (Lihat [[Halakha#Era sejarah penting dalam hukum Yahudi|era dalam hukum Yahudi]].)
<!--=== Comparison of style and subject matter===
There are significant differences between the two Talmud compilations. The language of the Jerusalem Talmud is a western Aramaic dialect which differs from that of the Babylonian. The Talmud Yerushalmi is often fragmentary and difficult to read, even for experienced Talmudists. The redaction of the Talmud Bavli, on the other hand, is more careful and precise.
In the Bavli, however, gemara exists only for 37 out of the 63 tractates of the Mishna: most laws from the Orders Zeraim (agricultural laws limited to the land of Israel) and Toharot (ritual purity laws related to the Temple and sacrificial system) had little practical relevance in Babylonia and were therefore not included. The Yerushalmi, though, covers a number of these tractates.
The influence of the Babylonian Talmud has been far greater than that of the ''Yerushalmi''. In the main, this is because the influence and prestige of the Jewish community of Israel steadily declined in contrast with the Babylonian community in the years after the redaction of the Talmud and continuing until the Gaonic era. Furthermore, the editing of the Babylonian talmud was superior to that of the Palestinian version, making it more accessible and readily usable.
== Printing of the Talmud==
The first complete edition of the Babylonian Talmud was [[Printing|printed]] in Italy by [[Daniel Bomberg]] during the 16th century. In addition to the ''Mishna'' and ''Gemara'', Bomberg's edition contained the commentaries of [[Rashi]] and [[Tosafot]]. Almost all printings since Bomberg have followed the same pagination. In 1835, a new edition of the Talmud was printed by the Menachem Romm of Vilna. Known as the [[Vilna edition|''Vilna Shas'']], this edition (and later ones printed by his widow and sons) have become an unofficial standard for Talmud editions.
A page number in the Talmud refers to a double-sided page, known as a ''daf''; each daf has two ''amudim'' labelled א and ב, sides A and B. The referencing by ''daf'' is relatively recent and dates from the early Talmud printings of the [[17th century]]. Earlier [[rabbinic literature]] generally only refers to the tractate or chapters within a tractate. Nowadays, reference is made in format [''Tractate daf a/b''] (e.g. Berachot 23b). In the Vilna edition of the Talmud there are 5,894 folio pages.
== Talmud commentary and study ==
The Talmud contains a great wealth of Jewish knowledge and from the time of its completion it became an essential and authoritative addition to Jewish literature. It quickly became an integral part of the curriculum of Jewish schools throughout Babylonia and beyond. In this section we will briefly outline some of the major areas of Talmudic scholarship and study.
The earliest talmud commentaries were written by the Gaonim (approximately 800-1000, C.E.). Although some direct commentaries on particular treatises are extant, our main knowledge of Gaonic era talmud scholarship comes from statements embedded in Geonic responsa which shed light on talmudic passages. After the death of Hai Gaon, however, the center of Talmud scholarship shifts to Europe and North Africa.
=== Halachic and Aggadic extractions ===
One area of talmudic scholarship developed out of the need to ascertain the Halacha. Early commentators such as Rabbi [[Isaac Alfasi]] (North Africa, 1013-1103) attempted to extract and determine the binding legal opinions from the vast corpus of the talmud. Alfasi's work was highly influential and later served as a basis for the creation of halachic codes. Another influential medieval Halakhic commentary was that of Rabbi [[Asher b. Jehiel]] (d. 1327).
A fifteenth century Spanish Rabbi, Jacob ibn Habib (d. 1516), composed the ''En Yaaqob''. En Yaaqob (or Ein Yaaqov) extracts nearly all the aggadic material from the talmud. It was intended to familiarize the public with the ethical parts of the Talmud and to dispute many of the accusations surrounding the contents of the Talmud.
=== Understanding the Talmud ===
The talmud is often cryptic and difficult to understand. Its language contains many Greek and Persian words which over time became obscure. A major area of Talmudic scholarship developed in order to explain these passages and words. Some early commentators such as Rabbenu Gershom of Mainz (10th c.) and Rabbenu Hannanel (early 11th c.) produced running commentaries to various tractates. These commentaries could be read with the text of the Talmud and would help explain the meaning of the text. Using a different style, Rabbi Nathan b. Jechiel created a lexicon called the ''Arukh'' in the 11th century in order to translate difficult words.
By far the most well known ''commentary'' on the Babylonian Talmud is that of [[Rashi]] (Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac, 1040-1105). The commentary is comprehensive, covering almost the entire Talmud. Written as a running commentary, it provides a full explanation of the words, and explains the logical structure of each Talmudic passage. It is considered indispensable to students of the Talmud.
Medieval Ashkenazic Jewry produced another major commentary known as [[Tosafists|Tosafot]] ("additions" or "supplements"). The ''tosafot'' are collected commentaries by various medieval Ashkenazic Rabbis on the Talmud. One of the main goals of the ''Tosafot'' is to explain and interpret contradictory statements in the talmud. Unlike ''Rashi'', the ''Tosafot'' is not a running commentary, but rather comments on selected matters. Often the explanations of ''Tosafot'' differ from those of ''Rashi''.
Over time, many other commentaries have been produced. Some of the more widely known are those of "Maharshal" ([[Solomon Luria]]), "Maharam" ([[Meir Lublin]]) and "Maharsha" ([[Samuel Edels]])
===Pilpul===
Beginning in the sixteenth century a genre of talmud commentary was created in which very discreet or minor points of contradiction within the talmud were explained by using complicated logical explanations. Such commentaries were often praised more for their artistry and logical skill than for their explanations of the text. This genre became known as ''pilpul'' (meaning pepper and referring to the strength of the logical arguments). Pilpul is considered a highly developed art form of talmud study. The term ''Pilpul'' itself is somewhat derogatory. The new genre drew both admirers and critics. In response to ''pilpul'', Talmud commentaries that did not use complicated logical arguments were referred to as being ''al derekh haPeshat'' (according to direct explanation).
===Brisker method===
In the late nineteenth century another trend in Talmud study arose. Rabbi [[Chaim Soloveitchik|Hayyim Soloveitchik]] (1853-1918) of Brisk (Brest-Litovsk) developed and refined this style of study. Brisker method involves the analysis of rabbinic arguments within the talmud or among the ''rishonim'' and explaining the differing opinions by placing them within a categorical structure. The brisker method is highly analytical and is often criticized as being a modern day version of Pilpul. Nevertheless, the influence of the Brisker method is great. Most modern day Yeshivot study the Talmud using the Brisker method in some form. And it is through this method that Maimonides' ''Mishne Torah'' was transformed from being solely a halachic work to one of talmudic interpretation as well.
==Historical method==
The Text of the Talmud has been subject to some level of critical scrutiny throughout its history. However, traditionally, the text of the Talmud has been viewed as static and as having a semi-canonical status. Traditional commentaries usually shied away from textual emendation of Talumudic passages. As a result of emancipation from the ghetto (1789), Judaism underwent enormous upheaval and transformation during the Nineteenth century. The Talmud like the rest of Judaism was scrutinized and questioned. As a result modern critical study of the Talmud was born.
Leaders of the Reform movement, such as [[Abraham Geiger]] and [[Samuel Holdheim]], subjected the Talmud to severe scrutiny as part of an effort to break with traditional rabbinic Judaism. In reaction Orthodox leaders such as [[Moses Sofer]] became severely sensitive to any change and would reject any critical analysis of Talmud. Talmud study was caught in the great debate between Reformers and Orthodoxy. Somewhere in between these two diametrically opposed views arose a new method. The Historical-Critical method of Talmud study. These scholars and rabbis believed that Jewish Law was a product of a long development and that tampering with this process should be avoided. On the other hand, they believed that traditional Jewish sources, such as the Talmud, should be subject to academic inquiry and critical analysis. The founders this viewpoint were [[Zecharias Frankel]], [[Leopold Zunz]] and [[Solomon Judah Leib Rappaport]].
In general, it may be said that advocates of the critical method of talmud study were willing to apply modern academic and scientific methods of research to Talmud study. Significantly, advocates of the historical method are willing to emmend the text of the talmud in order to answer difficulties in the text.
Because modern method of historical study has its origins in the era of religious reform it was immedietly controversial within the Orthodox world. Still, many severe critics of Reform and strictly orthodox Rabbis of the nineteenth century utilized this new scientific method ([[Nachman Krochmol]], [[Zevi Hirsch Chajes]], [[Meir Lebush Malbim]]).
=== Talmud scholarship today ===
In Orthodox yeshivot the critical study of Talmud is still mostly avoided. However, the historical method has become the basis of all modern academic study. Some trends within contemporary academic talmud scholarship are listed below.
*Some scholars hold that there has been extensive editorial reshaping of the stories and statements within the Talmud. Lacking outside confirming texts, they hold that we cannot confirm the origin or date of most statements and laws, and that we can say little for certain about their authorship. In this view, the questions above are impossible to answer. See, for example, the works of [[Louis Jacobs]] and [[Shaye J.D. Cohen]].
*Some scholars hold that the Talmud has been extensively shaped by later editorial redaction, but that it contains sources which we can identify and describe with some level of reliability. In this view, sources can be identified by tracing the history and analyzing the geographical regions of origin. See, for example, the works of [[Lee I. Levine]] and [[David C. Kraemer]].
*Some scholars hold that many or most the statements and events described in the Talmud usually occurred more or less as described, and that they can be used as serious sources of historical study. In this view, historians do their best to tease out later editorial additions (itself a very difficult task) and skeptically view accounts of miracles, leaving behind a reliable historical text. See, for example, the works of [[Saul Lieberman]], [[David Weiss Halivni]], and [[Avraham Goldberg]].
== Role of the Talmud in Judaism ==
The Talmud is the written record of an oral tradition. It became the basis for many rabbinic legal codes and customs. Not all Jews, in the past and present, have accepted the Talmud as having religious authority. This section briefly outlines such movements.
===Sadducees===
The [[Sadducees]] were a Jewish sect which flourished during the second temple period. One of their main arguments with the [[Pharisees]] (who would later become Rabbinic Judaism) was their rejection of an ''Oral Law''.
===Karaism===
Another movement which rejected the oral law was [[Karaism]]. It arose within two centuries of the completion of the Talmud. Karaism developed as a reaction against the Talmudic Judaism of Babylonia. The central concept of Karaism is the rejection of the [[Oral Law]], as embodied in the Talmud, in favor of a strict adherence to the Written Law only. This opposes the fundamental [[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbinic]] concept that the Oral Law was given to [[Moses]] on [[Mount Sinai]] together with the Written Law. Karaism has virtually disappeared, declining from a high of nearly 10% of the Jewish population to a current estimated .002%.
===Reform Judaism===
With the rise of [[Reform Judaism]] during the nineteenth century the authority of the Talmud was again questioned. The talmud was seen (together with the written law as well) as being a product of late antiquity and of having relevance merely as a historical document.
=== The Talmud in modern-day Judaism ===
:''See also [[Halakha#How Halakha is viewed today|How Halakha is viewed today]]; [[Halakha#The sources and process of Halakha|The Halakhic process]]''.
[[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] Judaism continues to stress the importance of Talmud study and it is a central component of Yeshiva curriculum. The regular study of Talmud among laymen has been popularized by the ''[[Daf Yomi]]'' a daily course of talmud study initiated by Rabbi Meir Shapiro in 1923. Traditional Rabbinic education continues to lay heavy emphasis on the knowledge of Talmud. This is so even though ''Halakha'' is generally studied from the medieval codes and not directly from the Talmud. See also: ''[[Orthodox Judaism#Beliefs about Jewish law and tradition|Orthodox beliefs about Jewish law and tradition]]''.
[[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] Judaism similarly emphasises the study of Talmud within its religious and rabbinic education. Generally, however, the Talmud is studied as a historical source-text for [[Halakha]]. The Conservative approach to legal decision-making emphasizes placing classic texts and prior decisions in historical and cultural context, and examining the historical development of [[halakha]]. This approach has resulted in greater practical flexibility than that of the Orthodox. See also: ''[[Conservative Judaism#Jewish law|The Conservative Jewish view of the Halakha]]''.
[[Reform Judaism|Reform]] Judaism does not emphasize the study of Talmud to the same degree in their Hebrew schools, but they do teach it in their rabbinical seminaries; the world view of liberal Judaism rejects the idea of binding [[halakha|Jewish law]], and uses the Talmud as a source of inspiration and moral instruction. See also: ''[[Reform Judaism#Reform's position on Halakha (Jewish law) today|The Reform Jewish view of the Halakha]]'' and ''[[Reform Judaism#Teachings on the Oral Law|view of the Talmud]]''.
==External attacks on the Talmud==
The history of the Talmud reflects in part the history of Judaism persisting in a world of hostility and persecution. Almost at the very time that the Babylonian savoraim put the finishing touches to the redaction of the Talmud, the emperor [[Justinian I|Justinian]] issued his edict against the abolition of the Greek translation of the Bible in the service of the Synagogue. This edict, dictated by Christian zeal and anti-Jewish feeling, was the prelude to attacks on the Talmud, conceived in the same spirit, and beginning in the [[thirteenth century]] in [[France]], where Talmudic study was then flourishing.
The charge against the Talmud brought by the convert Nicholas Donin led to the first public disputation between Jews and Christians and to the first burning of copies of the work ([[Paris]], Place de Grève,[[1244]]). The Talmud was likewise the subject of a disputation at [[Barcelona]] in [[1263]] between [[Nahmanides]] (Rabbi Moses ben Nahman) and Pablo Christiani. This same Pablo Christiani made an attack on the Talmud which resulted in a [[papal bull]] against it and in the first censorship, which was undertaken at Barcelona by a commission of [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]s, who ordered the cancellation of passages reprehensible from a Christian perspective ([[1264]]).
At the disputation of [[Tortosa]] in [[1413]], Geronimo de Santa Fé brought forward a number of accusations, including the fateful assertion that the condemnations of pagans and apostates found in the Talmud referred in reality to Christians. Two years later, [[Pope Martin V]], who had convened this disputation, issued a bull (which was destined, however, to remain inoperative) forbidding the Jews to read the Talmud, and ordering the destruction of all copies of it. Far more important were the charges made in the early part of the [[sixteenth century]] by the convert [[Johannes Pfefferkorn]], the agent of the Dominicans. The result of these accusations was a struggle in which the emperor and the pope acted as judges, the advocate of the Jews being [[Johann Reuchlin]], who was opposed by the obscurantists and the humanists; and this controversy, which was carried on for the most part by means of pamphlets, became the precursor of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] {{fact}}.
An unexpected result of this affair was the complete printed edition of the Babylonian Talmud issued in [[1520]] by [[Daniel Bomberg]] at [[Venice]], under the protection of a papal privilege. Three years later, in [[1523]], Bomberg published the first edition of the Palestinian Talmud. After thirty years the Vatican, which had first permitted the Talmud to appear in print, undertook a campaign of destruction against it. On New-Year's Day ([[September 9]], [[1553]]) the copies of the Talmud which had been confiscated in compliance with a decree of the [[Inquisition]] were burned at [[Rome]]; and similar burnings took place in other Italian cities, as at [[Cremona]] in [[1559]]. The Censorship of the Talmud and other Hebrew works was introduced by a papal bull issued in [[1554]]; five years later the Talmud was included in the first [[Index Expurgatorius]]; and [[Pope Pius IV]] commanded, in [[1565]], that the Talmud be deprived of its very name.
The first edition of the expurgated Talmud, on which most subsequent editions were based, appeared at [[Basel]] ([[1578]]-[[1581]]) with the omission of the entire treatise of 'Abodah Zarah and of passages considered inimical to Christianity, together with modifications of certain phrases. A fresh attack on the Talmud was decreed by [[Pope Gregory XIII]] (1575-85), and in [[1593]] [[Pope Clement VIII|Clement VIII]] renewed the old interdiction against reading or owning it. The increasing study of the Talmud in Poland led to the issue of a complete edition ([[Kraków]], 1602-5), with a restoration of the original text; an edition containing, so far as known, only two treatises had previously been published at [[Lublin]] (1559-76). In [[1707]] some copies of the Talmud were confiscated in the province of [[Brandenburg]], but were restored to their owners by command of [[Friedrich I of Prussia|Frederick, the first king of Prussia]]. The last attack on the Talmud took place in Poland in [[1757]], when Bishop Dembowski, at the instigation of the [[Frankists]], convened a public disputation at Kamenetz-Podolsk, and ordered all copies of the work found in his bishopric to be confiscated and burned by the hangman.
The external history of the Talmud includes also the literary attacks made upon it by Christian theologians after the Reformation, since these onslaughts on Judaism were directed primarily against that work, even though it was made a subject of study by the Christian theologians of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1830, during a debate in the French Chamber of Peers regarding state recognition of the Jewish faith, Admiral Verhuell declared himself unable to forgive the Jews whom he had met during his travels throughout the world either for their refusal to recognize [[Jesus]] as the [[Messiah]] or for their possession of the Talmud. In the same year the Abbé Chiarini published at Paris a voluminous work entitled "Théorie du Judaïsme," in which he announced a translation of the Talmud, advocating for the first time a version which should make the work generally accessible, and thus serve for attacks on Judaism. In a like spirit modern anti-Semitic agitators have urged that a translation be made; and this demand has even been brought before legislative bodies, as in Vienna. The Talmud and the "Talmud Jew" thus became objects of anti-Semitic attacks, although, on the other hand, they were defended by many Christian students of the Talmud.
Despite the numerous mentions of [[Edom]] which may refer to Christendom, the Talmud makes little mention of Jesus directly or the early Christians. There are a number of quotes about individuals named [[Yeshu]] that once existed in editions of the Talmud; these quotes were long ago removed from the main text due to accusations that they referred to Jesus, and are no longer used in Talmud study. However, these removed quotes were preserved through rare printings of lists of ''errata'', known as ''Hashmatot Hashass'' ("Omissions of the Talmud"). Some modern editions of the Talmud contain some or all of this material, either at the back of the book, in the margin, or in alternate print. These passages do not necessarily refer to a single individual and many of the stories are far removed from anything written in the [[New Testament]]. Many scholars are convinced that these people cannot be identified as the Christian Jesus.
===Charges of racism===
Some groups and individuals consider that passages in the Talmud show that [[Judaism]] is inherently racist. Critics of these charges argue that the passages in question do not indicate inherent racism on the part of the Talmud (and Judaism), but rather mistranslation, falsification, and selective choice of quotes out of context, on the part of those making the charges. The [[Anti-Defamation League]]'s report on this topic states:
<blockquote>By selectively citing various passages from the Talmud and Midrash, polemicists have sought to demonstrate that Judaism espouses hatred for non-Jews (and specifically for Christians), and promotes obscenity, sexual perversion, and other immoral behavior. To make these passages serve their purposes, these polemicists frequently mistranslate them or cite them out of context (wholesale fabrication of passages is not unknown)...<br>
In distorting the normative meanings of rabbinic texts, anti-Talmud writers frequently remove passages from their textual and historical contexts. Even when they present their citations accurately, they judge the passages based on contemporary moral standards, ignoring the fact that the majority of these passages were composed close to two thousand years ago by people living in cultures radically different from our own. They are thus able to ignore Judaism's long history of social progress and paint it instead as a primitive and parochial religion.<br>
Those who attack the Talmud frequently cite ancient rabbinic sources without noting subsequent developments in Jewish thought, and without making a good-faith effort to consult with contemporary Jewish authorities who can explain the role of these sources in normative Jewish thought and practice.</blockquote>
Rabbi [[Gil Student]], a prolific author on the internet, exposes anti-Talmud accusations and writes:
<blockquote>Anti-Talmud accusations have a long history dating back to the 13th century when the associates of the Inquisition attempted to defame Jews and their religion [see Yitzchak Baer, ''A History of Jews in Christian Spain'', vol. I pp. 150-185]. The early material compiled by hateful preachers like Raymond Martini and Nicholas Donin remain the basis of all subsequent accusations against the Talmud. Some are true, most are false and based on quotations taken out of context, and some are total fabrications [see Baer, ch. 4 f. 54, 82 that it has been proven that Raymond Martini forged quotations]. On the Internet today we can find many of these old accusations being rehashed...</blockquote>
==The ''Daf Yomi'' ("Daily Page")==
Thousands of Jews worldwide participate in [[Daf Yomi]] - literally the daily page (of Talmud) - as part of a monumental program. Daf Yomi was initiated by Rabbi [[Meir Shapiro]] in [[1923]] at the First World Congress of [[Agudath Israel]] in [[Vienna]]. With 2711 folios in the Talmud, one cycle takes about 7.5 years. Daf Yomi started its 12th cycle of study on [[March 2]], [[2005]].
== Translations ==
=== Translations of Talmud Bavli ===
There are four contemporary translations of the Talmud into English:
* ''The Soncino Hebrew-English Talmud'' [[Isidore Epstein]], Soncino Press. In this translation, each English page faces the Aramaic/Hebrew page. Notes on each page provide additional background material. See also: [http://www.soncino.com/Talmudset.html Soncino Talmud site].
* ''The Talmud of Babylonia. An American Translation'', [[Jacob Neusner]], Tzvee Zahavy, others. Atlanta: 1984-1995: Scholars Press for Brown Judaic Studies. Complete.
* ''The Schottenstein Edition of the Talmud'', [[Artscroll|Mesorah Publications]]. In this translation, each English page faces the Aramaic/Hebrew page. The English pages are elucidated and heavily annotated; each Aramaic/Hebrew page of Talmud typically requires three English pages of translation. See also: [http://www.artscroll.com/Talmud1.htm Mesorah Talmud site].
* ''The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition'' [[Adin Steinsaltz]], Random House (incomplete). This work is in fact a translation of Rabbi Steinsaltz' [[Hebrew language]] translation of and commentary on the entire Talmud. See also: [http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/content.asp?id=17 Steinsaltz Talmud site].
=== Translations of Talmud Yerushalmi ===
''Talmud of the Land of Israel: A Preliminary Translation and Explanation'' [[Jacob Neusner]], Tzvee Zahavy, others. University of Chicago Press. This translation uses a form-analytical presentation which makes the logical units of discourse easier to identify and follow.
This work has received many positive reviews. However, some consider Neusner's translation methodology idiosyncratic. One volume was negatively reviewed by [[Saul Lieberman]] of the Jewish Theological Seminary.
''Schottenstein Edition of the Yerushalmi Talmud'' Mesorah/Artscroll. This translation is the counterpart to Mesorah/Artscroll's Schottenstein Edition of the Talmud (i.e. Babylonian Talmud). [http://www.artscroll.com/Books/ytal.html Mesorah/Artscroll's website for the Schottenstein Edition of the Yerushalmi Talmud]
==See also==
*[[Jerusalem Talmud]]
*[[Mishnah]]
*[[Minor Tractates]]
*[[Tosefta]]
*[[Beraita]]
*[[Gemara]]
*[[Ein Yaakov]]
*[[Rabbinic literature]]
*[[Geonim#The Kallah|The Kallah Month]]
*[[Yeshiva]]
==References==
===General===
* [[Maimonides]] ''Introduction to the [[Mishneh Torah]]'' ([http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/e0000.htm English translation])
* [[Maimonides]] ''Introduction to the [[Maimonides#Works and bibliography|Commentary on the Mishnah]]'' ([http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/mahshevt/hakdama/tohen-m-2.htm Hebrew Fulltext]), transl. Zvi Lampel (Judaica Press, 1998). ISBN 1-880582-28-7
* [[Adin Steinsaltz]] ''The Talmud: A Reference Guide'' (Random House, 1996). ISBN 0-679-77367-3
* [[Adin Steinsaltz]] ''The Essential Talmud'' (Basic Books, 1984). ISBN 0-465-02063-1; see also [http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/essay_details.asp?id=6&sub=1 here]
* [[Zvi Hirsch Chajes]] ''"Mevo Hatalmud"'', transl. Jacob Shachter: ''The Students' Guide Through The Talmud'' (Yashar Books, 2005). ISBN 1-933143-05-3
*[[Shmuel Hanaggid]] ''Introduction to the Talmud'', in Aryeh Carmell ''Aiding Talmud Study'' (Philipp Feldheim, 1986). ISBN 0-87306-428-3
* Nathan T. Lopes Cardozo ''The Infinite Chain : Torah, Masorah, and Man'' (Philipp Feldheim, 1989). ISBN 0-944070-15-9
* D. Landesman ''A Practical Guide to Torah Learning'' (Jason Aronson, 1995). ISBN 1-56821-320-4
* Aaron Parry ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to The Talmud'' (Alpha Books, 2004). ISBN 1-59257-202-2
* R. Travers Herford ''Christianity in Talmud and Midrash'' (Ktav Pub Inc, 1975). ISBN 0-87068-483-3
===Historical study===
*Shalom Carmy (Ed.) ''Modern Scholarship in the Study of Torah: Contributions and Limitations'' Jason Aronson, Inc.
*[[Louis Jacobs]], "How Much of the Babylonian Talmud is Pseudepigraphic?" Journal of Jewish Studies 28, No. 1 (1977), pp. 46-59
*Richard Kalmin ''Sages, Stories, Authors and Editors in Rabbinic Babylonia'' Brown Judaic Studies
*David C. Kraemer, ''On the Reliability of Attributions in the Babylonian Talmud,'' Hebrew Union College Annual 60 (1989), pp. 175-90
*Lee Levine, Ma'amad ha-Hakhamim be-Erez Yisrael (Jerusalem: Yad Yizhak Ben-Zvi, 1985), (=The Rabbinic Class of Roman Palestine in Late Antiquity)
*[[Saul Lieberman]] ''Hellenism in Jewish Palestine'' (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1950)
*[[John W McGinley]] " 'The Written' as the Vocation of Conceiving Jewishly". ISBN 0-595-40488-X
*[[Jacob Neusner]] ''Sources and Traditions: Types of Compositions in the Talmud of Babylonia'' (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992).
