|
==Sejarah==
{{Infobox language family
Sejarah awal.... sebagai kerajaan... musu' sellengnge... Perang Makassar... sebagai vasal Bone... merdeka 1737... serangan ke benteng Belanda... persebaran diaspora... kejatuhan di awal abad ke-20
|name= Rumpun bahasa Polinesia
==Masyarakat==
|region= [[Polinesia]]
Strata sosial... diaspora Bugis Wajo...
|familycolor= Austronesian
==Struktur pemerintahan==
|fam2= [[Rumpun bahasa Melayu-Polinesia|Melayu-Polinesia]]
Pemilihan arung matoa... dewan tetua...
|fam3= [[Rumpun bahasa Oseanik|Oseanik]]
==Ekonomi==
|fam4= [[Rumpun bahasa Pasifik Tengah|Pasifik Tengah]]
Koperasi La Salewangeng... Hukum Amanna Gappa...
|fam5= [[Bahasa Fiji Timur|Fiji Timur]]–Polinesia
|protoname= [[Bahasa Proto-Polinesia|Proto-Polinesia]]
|child1= [[Rumpun bahasa Tongik|Tongik]]
|child2= Polinesia Inti
|glotto= poly1242
|glottorefname= Polynesian
|map= Fijian-Polynesian.svg
|mapcaption= '''Persebaran bahasa Pasifik Tengah'''<br />[[Oliv (warna)|Oliv]] adalah Polinesia (not shown: [[Rapanui language|Rapa Nui]])
}}
The '''Polynesian languages''' form a [[language family]] spoken in geographical [[Polynesia]] and on a patchwork of [[Polynesian outlier|outliers]] from south central [[Micronesia]] to small islands off the northeast of the larger islands of the southeast [[Solomon Islands]] and sprinkled through [[Vanuatu]]. Linguistic taxonomists classify them as a subgroup of the much larger and more varied [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian family]], belonging to the [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]] branch of that family.<ref>In terms of numbers of languages, the 38 members of the Polynesian branch represent 7 percent of the 522 Oceanic languages, and 3 percent of the Austronesian family (source: ''[[Glottolog]]'').</ref>
All Polynesian languages show strong similarity, particularly in vocabulary. The vowels are often stable in the descendant languages, nearly always a, e, i, o and u. Consonant [[sound change|changes]] tend to be quite regular. The legendary homeland of many Polynesian peoples, reconstructed as *sawaiki, appears as Hawaiki among the Māori of [[New Zealand]] with s replaced by h; but 'Avaiki in the [[Cook Islands]] with s replaced by the [[glottal stop]], and w by v; as Hawai'i, the name of the largest island in the [[Hawaiian Islands]], with s replaced by h, and k by the glottal stop; as Savai'i, the largest island in [[Samoa]], with w replaced by v, and k by the glottal stop; and as Havai'i in the [[Society Islands]] with s replaced by h, w replaced by v, and k by the glottal stop.<ref name=buckh>
{{cite book
|title= Vikings of the Sunrise |last= Hiroa |first= Te Rangi
|year= 1964 |publisher= Whitcombe and Tombs Ltd
|location= New Zealand|page= 69
|url= http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-BucViki-t1-front-d1-d1.html
|accessdate= 21 August 2010 |isbn= 0-313-24522-3
}}
</ref>
==Languages ==
Polynesian languages fall into two branches, Tongic and Nuclear Polynesian. [[Tongan language|Tongan]] and [[Niuean language|Niuean]] constitute the Tongic branch; all of the rest are part of the Nuclear Polynesian branch.<ref>{{cite book | last = Lynch | first = John | authorlink = John Lynch (linguist) |author2=[[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Malcolm Ross]] |author3=[[Terry Crowley (linguist)|Terry Crowley]] | year = 2002 | title = The Oceanic languages | location = Richmond, Surrey | publisher = Curzon | isbn = 978-0-7007-1128-4 | oclc = 48929366 }}</ref>
*Tongic
**[[Tongan language|Tongan]]
**[[Niuafoʻou language|Niuafoʻou]] (on [[Niuafoʻou|Niuafo'ou Island]], [[Tonga]])
**[[Niuean language|Niuean]]
*Nuclear Polynesian linkage
** Futunic:
***[[Wallisian language|Wallisian]] or East Uvean (fakaʻuvea) ([[Wallis (island)|Wallis Island]], [[Wallis and Futuna]])
***[[Fakafutuna]] or (East) Futunan ([[Futuna (Wallis and Futuna)|Futuna Island]], [[Wallis and Futuna]])
***[[Pukapukan language|Pukapukan]] ([[Pukapuka]], northern [[Cook Islands]])
***[[Rennellese language|Rennellese]] ([[Rennell Island|Rennell]] and [[Bellona Island|Bellona]] island, [[Solomon Islands]])
***[[Tikopia language|Tikopia]] ([[Tikopia|Tikopia Island]], [[Solomon Islands]])
***[[West Uvean language|West Uvean]] or Faga Uvea ([[Ouvéa]] off [[New Caledonia]])
***[[Futuna-Aniwa language|Futuna-Aniwa]] or West Futunan ([[Futuna Island, Vanuatu|Futuna]] and [[Aniwa Island|Aniwa]] in [[Vanuatu]])
***[[Mele-Fila language|Mele-Fila]] ([[Mele (island)|Mele Island]], [[Vanuatu]])
***[[Emae language|Emae]] ([[Emae|Emae Island]], [[Vanuatu]])
***[[Anuta language|Anuta]] ([[Anuta|Anuta Island]], [[Vanuatu]])
**Ellicean
***Samoic
****[[Samoan language|Samoan]]
****[[Tokelauan language|Tokelauan]]
***Ellicean–Outlier
****[[Tuvaluan language|Tuvaluan]]
****[[Nukuoro language|Nukuoro]] ([[Nukuoro]] in the [[Federated States of Micronesia]])
****[[Kapingamarangi language|Kapingamarangi]] (on [[Kapingamarangi]] in [[Federated States of Micronesia]])
****[[Nukuria language|Nukuria]] ([[Nuguria]] in eastern [[Papua New Guinea]]),<ref>Marck, Jeff (2000), ''Topics in Polynesian languages and culture history''. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics</ref>
****[[Takuu language|Takuu]] ([[Takuu Atoll]] in eastern [[Papua New Guinea]])
****[[Nukumanu language|Nukumanu]] ([[Nukumanu]] in the east of [[Papua New Guinea]])
****[[Ontong Java language|Ontong Java]] (or Luangiua; [[Ontong Java]], [[Solomon Islands]])
****[[Sikaiana language|Sikaiana]] ([[Sikaiana]], [[Solomon Islands]])
****[[Vaeakau-Taumako language|Pileni]] ([[Reef Islands]], [[Solomon Islands]])
***Eastern Polynesian
****[[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]] ([[Easter Island]])
**** Central–Eastern Polynesian
***** Marquesic
******Marquesan–Mangareva
*******[[Marquesan language|Marquesan]] ([[Marquesas Islands]], [[French Polynesia]])
*******[[Mangareva language|Mangareva]] ([[Gambier Islands]], [[French Polynesia]])
******[[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ([[Hawaii]], [[United States]])
***** Tahitic
******[[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] ([[Society Islands]], [[French Polynesia]])
****** [[Austral language|Austral]] ([[Austral Islands]], [[French Polynesia]])
******[[Rapa language|Rapa]] ([[Rapa Iti]], [[French Polynesia]])
****** [[Tuamotuan language|Tuamotuan]] ([[Tuamotu|Tuamotu Archipelago]], French Polynesia)
******[[Cook Islands Māori|Rarotongan]] (Cook Islands Māori, [[Cook Islands]])
****** [[Rakahanga-Manihiki language|Rakahanga-Manihiki]] ([[Rakahanga]] and [[Manihiki]], northern [[Cook Islands]])
****** [[Penrhyn language|Penrhyn]] (or Tongarevan; [[Tongareva atoll|Tongareva]], northern [[Cook Islands]])
******Māori–Moriori
*******[[Māori language|Māori]] ([[New Zealand]])
*******[[Moriori language|Moriori]] ([[Chatham Islands]], [[New Zealand]]) †
===History of classification===
{{POV section|date=August 2012}}
The contemporary classification of the Polynesian languages began with certain observations by [[Andrew Pawley]] in 1966 based on shared innovations in phonology, vocabulary and grammar showing that the East Polynesian languages were more closely related to Samoan than they were to Tongan, calling Tongan and its nearby relative Niuean "Tongic" and Samoan and all other Polynesian languages of the study "Nuclear Polynesian".<ref name="pawley66">Pawley, Andrew, 1966, Polynesian languages: a subgrouping based upon shared innovations in morphology. ''Journal of the Polynesian Society'' 75(1):39–64. {{JSTOR|20704348}}.</ref>
Pawley published another study in 1967.<ref name="pawley67">Pawley, Andrew, 1967, The relationships of Polynesian Outlier languages. ''Journal of the Polynesian Society'' 76(3):259–296. {{JSTOR|20704480}}.</ref> It began the process of extracting relationships from Polynesian languages on small islands in Melanesia, the "[[Polynesian Outliers]]", whose languages Pawley was able to trace to East Futuna in the case of those farther south and perhaps to Samoa itself in the case of those more to the north.
Except for some minor differentiation of the East Polynesian tree, further study paused for almost twenty years until Wilson<ref name="Wilson85">Wilson, William H., 1985, Evidence for an Outlier source for the Proto-Eastern-Polynesian pronominal system. ''Oceanic Linguistics'' 24(1/2):85-133. {{doi|10.2307/3623064}}. {{JSTOR|3623064}}.</ref> published a study of Polynesian pronominal systems in 1985 suggesting that there was a special relationship between the East Polynesian languages and all other Nuclear Polynesian but for Futunic, and calling that extra-Futunic group the "[[Ellicean languages]]". Furthermore, East Polynesian was found to more likely have emerged from extra-Samoan Ellicean than out of Samoa itself, an astonishing suggestion given the long assumption of a Samoan homeland for the origins of East Polynesian. Wilson named this new group "Ellicean" after the pre-independence name of Tuvalu and presented fine-grained evidence for subgroups within that overarching category.
Marck,<ref name="Marck">Marck, Jeff (2000), ''Topics in Polynesian languages and culture history''. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.</ref> in 2000, was able to offer some support for some aspects of Wilson's suggestion through comparisons of shared sporadic (irregular, unexpected) sound changes, e. g., Proto-Polynesian and Proto-Nuclear-Polynesian *mafu 'to heal' becoming Proto-Ellicean *mafo. This was made possible by the massive Polynesian language comparative lexicon ("Pollex" – with reconstructions) of Biggs and Clark.<ref name="Biggs, Bruce 1990">Biggs, Bruce (1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994) and Bruce Biggs and Ross Clark (1996), Pollex: Comparative Polynesian Lexicon (computer data base). Auckland: Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland.</ref>
Despite the relative low number of Polynesian languages, and the relative abundance of data already available on many of them, the comparative method was often reduced to comparisons of vocabulary, shared sporadic sound changes and, as Wilson had done in 1985, comparison of pronominal systems, which is perhaps the second most commonly described aspect of "minor" languages often available for comparison after the lexicostatistical lists. Wilson has a forthcoming work<ref name="ReferenceA">Wilson, William H., 2012, Whence the East Polynesians? Further linguistic evidence for a Northern Outlier Source. ''Oceanic Linguistics'' 51(2):289–359. {{JSTOR|23321860}}.</ref> providing further evidence of fine grained subgroups within Ellicean and a consideration of other recent work<ref>E.g., Kirch, Patrick Vinton and Roger Green (2001) ''Hawaiki, Ancestral Polynesia: An Essay in Historical Anthropology''. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. <br />Pawley, Andrew (2009) Polynesian paradoxes: subgroups, wave models and the dialect geography of Proto Polynesian. Unpublished paper delivered at the 11th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Aussois, France.</ref> on the matter of Ellicean internal relations. Wilson's new work brings the matter to the approximate limits of current data available, incorporating much data unknown to most other researchers.
Returning to lexicostatistics, it must be emphasised that the method does not make the best possible use of its short word lists of 100 or 200 words. Dyen's<ref>Dyen, Isidore, 1965. A Lexicostatistical classification of the Austronesian languages. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' (Memoir 19).</ref> massive lexicostatistical study of Austronesian, for instance, showed a great deal of (lexicostatistical) diversity in the Austronesian languages of Western Melanesia. This was sometimes on par with the lexicostatistical distance of Taiwan Austronesian languages from other Austronesian including Taiwan Austronesian languages from each other (Taiwan now definitively known to be the homeland of the language family itself). But the low lexicostatistical agreement of many Western Melanesian [[Oceanic languages]] with other Oceanic Austronesian can be easily dismissed as of little subgrouping interest because those languages are nevertheless full of diagnostic innovations of Oceanic Austronesian in their sound systems and vocabulary, including many Oceanic lexical innovations found in the 100 and 200 lexicostatistical word lists (and the deadly conclusive evidence of the shared phonological innovations of those low-scoring groups with all other Oceanic Austronesian). The Western Oceanic Melanesian "diversity" of lexicostatistical studies was never of any interest in terms of attributing any special time depth or subgrouping significance to it. They are just languages with accelerated loss of vocabulary, sometimes, in the Western{{Clarify|date=August 2015}} Oceanic case, because they involve certain more ancient peoples of the region shifting to Oceanic speech after Oceanic-speaking peoples arrived.<ref>Ross, Malcolm, 2008. The integrity of the Austronesian language family: from Taiwan to Oceania, in Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, Roger Blench, Malcolm D. Ross, Ilia Peiros and Marie Lin (ed.), ''Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching archaeology, linguistics and genetics'', Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, Great Britain, pp. 161–181.</ref>
==Personal pronouns==
In general, Polynesian languages have three [[Grammatical number|numbers]] for pronouns and possessives: singular, [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]] and plural. For example, in Māori: ''ia'' (he/she), ''rāua'' (they two), ''rātou'' (they 3 or more). The words ''rua'' (2) and ''toru'' (3) are still discernible in endings of the dual and plural pronouns, giving the impression that the plural was originally a [[Grammatical number#Trial|trial]] (threesome) or [[paucal]] (a few), and that an original plural has disappeared.<ref>Indeed [[Fijian language|Fijian]], a language closely related to Polynesian, has singular, dual, paucal, and plural; and even there we may see the paucal replacing the plural in generations to come, as the paucal currently can be used for a group from 3 up to as many as 10, usually with some family, workgroup or other association.</ref>
==Numerals in Polynesian languages==
<ref>Source: The Numbers List http://www.zompist.com/numbers.shtml</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
![[English language|English]]
!One
!Two
!Three
!Four
!Five
!Six
!Seven
!Eight
!Nine
!Ten
|-
![[Niuean language|Niuean]]
|taha
|ua
|tolu
|fa
|lima
|ono
|fitu
|valu
|hiva
|hogofolu
|-
![[Tongan language|Tongan]]
|taha
|ua
|tolu
|fa
|nima
|ono
|fitu
|valu
|hiva
|hongofulu
|-
![[Samoan language|Samoan]]
|tasi
|lua
|tolu
|fa
|lima
|ono
|fitu
|valu
|iva
|sefulu
|-
![[Tuvaluan language|Tuvaluan]]
|tasi
|lua
|tolu
|fa
|lima
|ono
|fitu
|valu
|iva
|agafulu
|-
!Nanumea
|tahi
|lua
|tolu
|fā
|lima
|ono
|fitu
|valu
|iva
|toa
|-
![[Tokelauan language|Tokelauan]]
|tahi
|lua
|tolu
|fa
|lima
|ono
|fitu
|valu
|iva
|hefulu
|-
![[Wallisian language|Wallisian]]
|tahi
|lua
|tolu
|fā
|nima
|ono
|fitu
|valu
|hiva
|hogofulu
|-
![[Pukapukan language|Pukapuka]]
|tayi
|lua
|tolu
|wa
|lima
|ono
|witu
|valu
|iva
|laugaulu
|-
![[Rennellese language|Rennellese]]
|tahi
|ŋgua
|toŋgu
|hā
|ŋgima
|ono
|hitu
|baŋgu
|iba
|katoa
|-
![[Vaeakau-Taumako language|Pileni]]
|tasi
|rua
|toru
|fā
|lima
|ono
|fitu
|valu
|iva
|kʰaro
|-
![[Tikopia language|Tikopia]]
|tasi
|rua
|toru
|fa
|rima
|ono
|fitu
|varu
|siva
|fuaŋafuru
|-
![[Anuta language|Anuta]]
|tai
|rua
|toru
|paa
|nima
|ono
|pitu
|varu
|iva
|puangapuru
|-
![[West Uvean language|West Uvea]]
|tahi
|ƚua
|toƚu
|fa
|lima
|tahia-tupu
|luaona-tupu
|toluona-tupu
|faona-tupu
|limaona-tupu
|-
![[Emae language|Emae]]
|tasi
|rua
|toru
|fa
|rima
|ono
|fitu
|βaru
|siβa
|ŋafuru
|-
![[Mele-Fila language|Mele]]
|tasi
|rua
|toru
|fa
|rima
|ono
|fitu
|βaru
|siβa
|siŋafuru
|-
![[Futuna-Aniwa language|Futuna-Aniwa]]
|tasi
|rua
|toru
|fa
|rima
|ono
|fitu
|varo
|iva
|tagafuru
|-
![[Sikaiana language|Sikaiana]]
|tahi
|lua
|tolu
|hā
|lima
|ono
|hitu
|valo
|sivo
|sehui
|-
![[Ontong Java language|Ontong Java]]
|kahi
|lua
|kolu
|hā
|lima
|oŋo
|hiku
|valu
|sivo
|sehui
|-
![[Takuu language|Takuu]]
|tasi
|lua
|toru
|fa
|rima
|ono
|fitu
|varu
|sivo
|sinafuru
|-
![[Kapingamarangi language|Kapingamarangi]]
|dahi
|lua
|dolu
|haa
|lima
|ono
|hidu
|walu
|hiwa
|mada
|-
![[Nukuoro language|Nukuoro]]
|dahi
|ka-lua
|ka-dolu
|ka-haa
|ka-lima
|ka-ono
|ka-hidu
|ka-valu
|ka-siva
|ka-hulu
|-
![[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]]
|tahi
|rua
|toru
|ha
|rima
|ono
|hitu
|vaʼu
|iva
|ʼahuru
|-
![[Tahitian language|Tahitian]]
|tahi
|piti
|toru
|maha
|pae
|ōno
|hitu
|vaʼu
|iva
|hōeʼahuru
|-
![[Penrhyn language|Penrhyn]]
|tahi
|lua
|tolu
|hā
|lima
|ono
|hitu
|valu
|iva
|tahi-ngahulu
|-
![[Cook Islands Māori|Rarotongan]]
|taʼi
|rua
|toru
|ā
|rima
|ono
|ʼitu
|varu
|iva
|ngaʼuru
|-
![[Tuamotuan language|Tuamotuan]]
|tahi
|rua
|toru
|fā
|rima
|ono
|hitu
|varu
|iva
|rongoʼuru
|-
![[Māori language|Maori]]
|tahi
|rua
|toru
|whā
|rima
|ono
|whitu
|waru
|iwa
|tekau (also ngahuru)
|-
![[Moriori language|Moriori]]
|tehi
|teru
|toru
|tewha
|terima
|teono
|tewhitu
|tewaru
|teiwa
|meangauru
|-
![[Mangareva language|Mangareva]]
|tahi
|rua
|toru
|ha
|rima
|ono
|hitu
|varu
|iva
|rogouru
|-
![[Marquesan language|Marquesan]]
|e tahi
|e úa
|e toú
|e fa
|e íma
|e ono
|e fitu
|e vaú
|e iva
|ónohuú
|-
![[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]
|‘e-kahi
|‘e-lua
|‘e-kolu
|‘e-hā
|‘e-lima
|‘e-ono
|‘e-hiku
|‘e-walu
|‘e-iwa
|‘umi
|}
<p><p><p>
==See also==
*[[Proto-Polynesian language]] – the reconstructed ancestral language from which modern Polynesian languages are derived.
*[[ʻOkina]] – a glyph shaped like (but distinct from) an apostrophe: used to represent the glottal-stop consonant in some Polynesian Latin-based scripts.
*[[Rongorongo]] – the undeciphered script of [[Easter Island]] ([[Rapanui]]).
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wvIlAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The Maori-Polynesian comparative dictionary|author=Edward Tregear|editor=|year=1891|publisher=Lyon and Blair|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=675|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-21}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/maoripolynesian01treggoog|title=The Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary|author=Edward Tregear|year=1891
|publisher=Lyon and Blair|}} at archive.org.
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x7syAQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A Paumotuan dictionary with Polynesian comparatives|author=Edward Tregear|editor=|year=1895|publisher=Whitcombe & Tombs Limited|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=76|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-21}}
==References==
* {{cite book |last1=Charpentier |first1=Jean-Michel |first2=Alexandre |last2=François |year=2015 |title=Atlas Linguistique de Polynésie Française – Linguistic Atlas of French Polynesia |language=French, English |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter & Université de la Polynésie Française |isbn=978-3-11-026035-9 |url=http://alex.francois.free.fr/AF-Atlas-blurbs_e.htm }}
* [[Geoffrey Irwin|Irwin, Geoffrey]] (1992). ''The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Krupa V. (1975–1982). ''Polynesian Languages'', Routledge and Kegan Paul
* Lynch, J. (1998). ''Pacific Languages : an Introduction''. University of Hawai'i Press.
* Lynch, John, Malcolm Ross & Terry Crowley (2002). ''The Oceanic languages''. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press.
* Marck, Jeff (2000), ''Topics in Polynesian languages and culture history''. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
==External links==
{{commons category|Languages of Polynesia}}
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