Maskulinitas: Perbedaan antara revisi
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[[Berkas:Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n01.jpg|al=One of the most famous depictions of Heracles, originally by Lysippos (marble, Roman copy called Hercules Farnese, 216 CE)|jmpl|Dalam mitologi yunani, [[Herakles]] identik dengan sifat maskulin.]]
'''Maskulinitas''' (disebut juga '''kejantanan''' atau '''kedewasaan''') adalah sejumlah atribut, perilaku, dan peran yang terkait dengan anak laki-laki dan pria dewasa. Maskulinitas didefinisikan secara sosial dan diciptakan secara biologis.<ref name="Wijngaard">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dn5cI9BHbKgC&pg=PA1|title=Reinventing the sexes: the biomedical construction of femininity and masculinity|last=van den Wijngaard|first=Marianne|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1997|isbn=9780253210876|location=Bloomington}}</ref><ref name="Martin and Finn">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KLPlmr9T7MC&pg=PA16|title=Masculinity and Femininity in the MMPI-2 and MMPI-A|last=Martin|first=Hale|last2=Finn|first2=Stephen Edward|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=2010|isbn=9780816675203}}</ref><ref name="Dunphy">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Sexual_Politics.html?id=NVPQkt0bVpAC|title=Sexual politics: an introduction|last=Dunphy|first=Richard|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2000|isbn=9780748612475}}</ref> Sifat maskulin berbeda dengan jenis kelamin.<ref name="Ferrante">Ferrante, Joan (2008), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AwnIIXI6y38C Gender and sexualities: with emphasis on gender ideals]", in {{Cite book|title=Sociology: a global perspective|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth|isbn=9780840032041|editor-last=Ferrante|editor-first=Joan|edition=7th|location=Belmont, California|pages=269–272}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/|title=Gender, Women and Health: What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"?|website=who.int|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908003355/http://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/|archive-date=8 September 2014|access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref> baik laki-laki maupun perempuan dapat bersifat maskulin. Ciri-ciri yang melekat pada istilah maskulin adalah keberanian, [[Kemerdekaan|kemandirian]] dan ketegasan.<ref name="Vetterling-Braggin">{{Cite book|title="Femininity", "masculinity", and "androgyny": a modern philosophical discussion|last=Vetterling-Braggin|first=Mary|publisher=Littlefield, Adams|year=1982|isbn=9780822603993|location=Totowa, N.J}}</ref><ref name="Worell">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of women and gender: sex similarities and differences and the impact of society on gender, Volume 1|last=Worell|first=Judith|publisher=Academic Press|year=2001|isbn=9780122272462|location=San Diego, California}}</ref><ref name="R. Murray Thomas">Thomas, R. Murray (2001), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-RxIUDYIuiIC&pg=PT248 Feminist perspectives]", in {{cite book|title=Recent theories of human development|year=2001|url=https://archive.org/details/recenttheoriesof0000thom|publisher=[[Sage Publications|Sage]]|isbn=9780761922476|editor-last=Thomas|editor-first=R. Murray|location=Thousand Oaks, California|page=[https://archive.org/details/recenttheoriesof0000thom/page/248 248]|quote=''Gender feminists also consider traditional feminine traits (gentleness, modesty, humility, sacrifice, supportiveness, empathy, compassion, tenderness, nurturance, intuitiveness, sensitivity, unselfishness) morally superior to the traditional masculine traits (courage, strong will, ambition, independence, assertiveness, initiative, rationality and emotional control).''}}</ref> ciri-ciri ini bervariasi dan dipengaruhi oleh faktor sosial dan budaya.<ref>Mikkola, Mari (2011), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FU2-Ha0d77wC&pg=PA1 Ontological commitments, sex and gender]", in {{Cite book|title=Feminist metaphysics: explorations in the ontology of sex, gender and the self|url=https://archive.org/details/feministmetaphys00witt|publisher=Springer|year=2011|isbn=9789048137831|editor-last=Witt|editor-first=Charlotte|location=Dordrecht|page=[https://archive.org/details/feministmetaphys00witt/page/77 77]}}</ref>
== Gambaran Umum ==
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== Peran Gender ==
[[Berkas:I_Won't_Cry_Daddy.jpg|ka|jmpl|Dari usia muda, anak laki-laki biasanya diajarkan untuk menekan emosi mereka dalam rangka untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan stereotip maskulin.<ref name="Worell835">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Women and Gender: Sex Similarities and Sifferences and the Impact of Society on Gender|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediawome00wore|last=Worell|first=Judith|date=2001|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=0122272455|location=San Diego, California|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediawome00wore/page/n871 835]}}</ref>]]Norma sosial dan tekanan yang terkait dengan maskulinitas telah membuat pria harus menyesuaikan identitas diri mereka. Ini mungkin menyebabkan perasaan menurun kecakapan fisik dan seksual serta kehilangan identitas laki-laki. Perasaan bersalah dan kehilangan kontrol secara keseluruhan juga dialami."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hutchinson|first=Susan L.|last2=Kleiber|first2=Douglas A.|date=January 2000|title=Heroic masculinity following spinal cord injury: Implications for therapeutic recreation practice and research|url=http://js.sagamorepub.com/trj/article/view/1110|journal=Therapeutic Recreation Journal|publisher=Sagamore Journals|volume=34|issue=1|postscript=.|ref=harv}}</ref> Penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa pria merasakan tekanan sosial untuk mendukung model pria maskulin tradisional dalam periklanan. Brett Martin dan Juergen Gnoth (2009) menemukan bahwa meskipun pria feminin lebih menyukai model feminin, mereka lebih menyukai model tradisional maskulin di depan umum. Hal ini mencerminkan tekanan sosial pada pria untuk mendukung norma maskulin tradisional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Brett A.S.|last2=Gnoth|first2=Juergen|date=December 2009|title=Is the Marlboro man the only alternative? The role of gender identity and self-construal salience in evaluations of male models|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-009-9069-2|journal=Marketing Letters|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|volume=20|issue=4|pages=353–367|doi=10.1007/s11002-009-9069-2|postscript=.|ref=harv}} [http://www.basmartin.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Martin-Gnoth-2009.pdf Pdf.]</ref>
Dalam buku mereka Raising Cain: Melindungi Kehidupan Emosional Anak laki-laki, Dan Kindlon dan Michael Thompson menulis bahwa walaupun semua anak laki-laki terlahir dengan cinta dan empatik, keterpaparan terhadap sosialisasi gender (ideal laki-laki yang tangguh) membatasi kemampuan mereka untuk berfungsi secara emosional. Menurut Kindlon dan Thompson, anak laki-laki tidak memiliki kemampuan untuk memahami dan mengekspresikan emosi secara produktif karena stres yang dipaksakan oleh peran gender maskulin.<ref>{{Citation|title=Raising Cain: protecting the emotional life of boys|year=2000|ref=harv|postscript=.|last1=Kindlon|last2=Thompson|first1=Dan|first2=Michael|pages=1–20|contribution=The road not taken: turning boys away from their inner life|location=New York|publisher=Ballantine Books|isbn=9780345434852|ISBN=9780345434852}}More than one of <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|ISBN=</code> dan <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|isbn=</code> specified ([[Bantuan:CS1 errors#redundant parameters|bantuan]])
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* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YuR2uFxxvPoC|title=Masculinities|last=Connell|first=R.W.|date=2005|publisher=Polity|isbn=0-74-563427-3|edition=2nd|location=Cambridge|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|title=Gay macho: the life and death of the homosexual clone|last=Levine|first=Martin|publisher=New York University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780814746943|location=New York}}
* {{Cite book|title=Men's lives|url=https://archive.org/details/menslives05edunse|last=Strate|first=Lance|publisher=Allyn and Bacon|year=2001|isbn=9780205321056|editor-last=Kimmel|editor-first=Michael|editor-link=Michael Kimmel|edition=5th|location=Boston|chapter=Beer commercials: a manual on masculinity|ref=harv|editor-last2=Messner|editor-first2=Michael|editor-link2=Michael Messner}}
=== Kontemporer ===
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* {{Cite book|title=Men's health: body, identity, and social context|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2009|isbn=9780470516560|editor-last=Broom|editor-first=Alex|location=Chichester, West Sussex, U.K. Hoboken, New Jersey|editor-last2=Tovey|editor-first2=Philip}}
* {{Cite news|title=What's killing men|last=Burstin|first=Fay|date=October 15, 2005|work=Herald Sun|location=Melbourne}}
* {{Cite book|title=Absent fathers, lost sons: the search for masculine identity|url=https://archive.org/details/absentfatherslos00corn|last=Corneau|first=Guy|publisher=Shambhala|year=1991|isbn=9780877736035|location=Boston New York|author-link=Guy Corneau}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Courtenay|first=Will H.|date=May 2000|title=Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men's well-being: a theory of gender and health|url=http://menshealth.org/code/SSM.PDF|journal=[[Social Science & Medicine]]|volume=50|issue=10|pages=1385–1401|doi=10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00390-1|pmid=10741575|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Durham|first=Meenakshi G.|last2=Oates|first2=Thomas P.|date=2004|title=The mismeasure of masculinity: the male body, 'race' and power in the enumerative discourses of the NFL Draft|journal=Patterns of Prejudice|volume=38|issue=3|pages=301–320|doi=10.1080/0031322042000250475|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|title=Wild at heart: discovering the secret of a man's soul|url=https://archive.org/details/wildatheartdisco00eldr|last=Eldredge|first=John|publisher=T. Nelson|year=2001|isbn=9780785218951|location=Nashville, Tennessee|author-link=John Eldredge}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Evans|first=Joan|last2=Frank|first2=Blye|last3=Oliffe|first3=John L.|last4=Gregory|first4=David|displayauthors=1|date=March 2011|title=Health, Illness, Men and Masculinities (HIMM): a theoretical framework for understanding men and their health|url=http://health-equity.pitt.edu/4057/1/Health,_Illness,_Men_and_Masculinity.pdf|journal=Journal of Men's Health|volume=8|issue=1|pages=7–15|doi=10.1016/j.jomh.2010.09.227}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Galdas|first=Paul M.|last2=Cheater|first2=Francine M.|date=2010|title=Indian and Pakistani men’s accounts of seeking medical help for cardiac chest pain in the United Kingdom: constructions of marginalised masculinity or another version of hegemonic masculinity?|journal=Qualitative Research in Psychology|volume=7|issue=2|pages=122–139|doi=10.1080/14780880802571168|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|title=Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence|last=Juergensmeyer|first=Mark|date=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-52-024011-1|edition=౩rd|location=Berkeley|pages=198–|chapter=Why Guys Throw Bombs|chapter-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061103115259/http://web.fu-berlin.de/gpo/pdf/juergensmeyer/juergensmeyer_e.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|title=Female masculinity|url=https://archive.org/details/femalemasculinit00judi|last=Halberstam|first=Jack|publisher=Duke University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780822322436|location=Durham|author-link=Jack Halberstam}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Hamber|first=Brandon|date=December 2007|title=Masculinity and transitional justice: an exploratory essay|journal=[[International Journal of Transitional Justice]]|volume=1|issue=3|pages=375–390|doi=10.1093/ijtj/ijm037|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|title=[[We Real Cool: Black Men and Masculinity|We real cool: Black men and masculinity]]|last=hooks|first=bell|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=9780415969277|location=New York|author-link=bell hooks}}
* {{Cite book|title=Men's lives|url=https://archive.org/details/menslives05edunse|publisher=Allyn and Bacon|year=2001|isbn=9780205321056|editor-last=Kimmel|editor-first=Michael|editor-link=Michael Kimmel|edition=5th|location=Boston|ref=harv|editor-last2=Messner|editor-first2=Michael|editor-link2=Michael Messner}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Lawson|first=Robert|date=2013|title=The construction of ‘tough’ masculinity: Negotiation, alignment and rejection|journal=[[Gender and Language]]|volume=7|issue=3|pages=369–395|doi=10.1558/genl.v7i3.369|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|title=A new psychology of men|publisher=Basic Books|year=1995|isbn=9780465039166|editor-last=Levant|editor-first=Ronald F.|location=New York|editor-last2=Pollack|editor-first2=William S.}}
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* {{Cite news|title=Not just boys being boys: Brutal hazings are a product of a culture of masculinity defined by violence, aggression and domination|last=Robinson|first=L.|date=October 21, 2005|work=[[Ottawa Citizen]]|location=Ottawa, Ontario}}
* {{Cite book|title=Manhood: a new definition|last=Shapiro|first=Stephen A.|publisher=Putnam|year=1984|isbn=9780399129926|location=New York|author-link=Stephen A. Shapiro}}
* {{Citation|last=Shuttleworth|first=Russell|title=Gendering disability|year=2004|ref=harv|pages=166–178|contribution=Disabled masculinity|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=9780813533735|ISBN=9780813533735}}More than one of <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|ISBN=</code> dan <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|isbn=</code> specified ([[Bantuan:CS1 errors#redundant parameters|bantuan]]) * {{Cite book|title=Male impersonators: men performing masculinity|url=https://archive.org/details/maleimpersonator0000simp|last=Simpson|first=Mark|publisher=Routledge|year=1994|isbn=9780415909914|location=New York, NY}}
** Also available as: {{Cite book|title=Male impersonators: men performing masculinity|last=Simpson|first=Mark|publisher=Cassell|year=1993|isbn=9780304328086|location=London}}
* {{Cite book|title=Men are not cost-effective: male crime in America|url=https://archive.org/details/menarenotcosteff00june|last=Stephenson|first=June|publisher=HarperPerennial|year=1995|isbn=9780060950989|location=New York}}
* {{Cite book|title=The ideal of manliness: the legacy of Thring's Uppingham|last=Tozer|first=Malcolm|publisher=Sunnyrest Books|year=2015|isbn=9781329542730|location=Truro}}
* {{Cite book|title=Male trouble: masculinity and the performance of crisis|last=Walsh|first=Fintan|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2010|isbn=9781349368242|location=Basingstoke, Hampshire England New York}}
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