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<!--Dekret [[Caracalla]] pada [[212]], ''Constitutio Antoniniana'', memperluas [[kewarganegaraan]] di luar Italia untuk semua pria dewasa bebas di seluruh Kekaisaran Romawi, secara efektif meningkatkan populasi provinsi untuk menyamakan status dengan kota [[Roma]] sendiri. Pentingnya dekret ini lebih bersejarah dibanding secara politik. Dekret tersebut merupakan dasar untuk integrasi. Mekanisme ekonomi dan hukum dari negara dapat diterapkan di seluruh [[Mediterania]] seperti pernah dilakukan sebelumnya dari [[Latium]] ke seluruh Italia. Tentu saja, integrasi tidak terjadi secara seragam. Masyarakat yang sudah menyatu dengan Roma seperti [[Yunani]] terbantu oleh dekret ini, dibandingkan dengan yang letaknya lebih jauh, terlalu miskin atau terlalu asing seperti [[Britania]], [[Palestina (wilayah)|Palestina]] atau [[Mesir]].
-->
Pada tahun 293, [[Diokletianus]] menciptakan sistem administratif yang baru ([[tetrarki]])<ref name="B1">{{harvnb|Bury|1923|loc=[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/1*.html#1 hal. 1]}}</ref> sebagai institusi yang dimaksudkan untuk mengefisienkan kontrol Kekaisaran Romawi yang luas. Ia membagi Kekaisaran menjadi dua bagian, dengan dua kaisar memerintah dari Italia dan Yunani, masing-masing memiliki wakil-kaisar. Setelah masa kekuasaan Diokletianus dan [[Maximianus]] berakhir, tetrarki runtuh, dan [[Konstantinus I]] menggantinya dengan prinsip penggantian turun temurun.<ref name="BG">Gibbon (1906), Part II Chapter 14: [httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20080625235855/http://olldownload.libertyfund.org/Texts/Gibbon0105/DeclineAndFall/Vol02/PDFs/0214-02_Pt06_Chap14.pdf 200].</ref>
 
Konstantinus memindahkan pusat kekaisaran, dan membawa perubahan-perubahan penting pada konstitusi sipil dan religius.<ref name="G168">{{harvnb|Gibbon|1906|loc=III, {{PDFlink| [http://web.archive.org/web/20080625235904/http://olldownload.libertyfund.org/Texts/Gibbon0105/DeclineAndFall/Vol03/PDFs/0214-03_Pt04_Chap18.pdf 168] |2.35&nbsp;MB}}}}.</ref> Pada tahun 330, ia mendirikan Konstantinopel sebagai Roma kedua di Byzantium. Posisi kota tersebut strategis dalam perdagangan antara Timur dan Barat. Sang kaisar memperkenalkan koin ([[solidus (koin)|solidus]] emas) yang bernilai tinggi dan stabil,<ref name="esler-1081">{{harvnb|Esler|2004|p=1081}}.</ref> serta and mengubah struktur angkatan bersenjata. Di bawah Konstantinus, kekuatan militer kekaisaran kembali pulih. Periode kestabilan dan kesejahteraan pun dapat dinikmati.
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{{details|Perang Salib Keempat}}
[[Berkas:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 012.jpg|jmpl|Right|''Tentara Salib Memasuki Konstantinopel'', karya [[Eugène Delacroix]] (1840).]]
Pada tahun 1198, [[Paus Innosensius III]] memulai pembicaraan mengenai perang salib baru melalui legatus dan surat-surat [[ensiklik]].<ref name="Norwich299">{{harvnb|Norwich|1998|p=299}}.</ref> Tujuan perang salib tersebut adalah untuk menaklukkan Mesir, yang merupakan pusat kekuatan Muslim di [[Levant]]. Tentara Salib yang tiba di [[Republik Venesia|Venesia]] pada musim panas 1202 jumlahnya lebih kecil daripada yang dinanti. Mereka juga tidak mempunyai dana yang cukup untuk menyewa armada Venesia.<!-- Kebijakan Venesia di bawah pimpinan [[Doge Venesia|Doge]] [[Enrico Dandolo]] mungkin bertentangan dengan paus dan tentara salib, karena Venesia memiliki hubungan dagang yang baik dengan Mesir.<ref name="Br4Cr">{{cite encyclopedia|title=The Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Constantinople|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}.</ref>--> Sebagai ganti pembayaran, Tentara Salib setuju untuk membantu merebut pelabuhan (Kristen) [[Zadar|Zara]] di [[Dalmatia]] (kota vassal Venesia, tetapi memberontak dan dilindungi oleh Hongaria tahun 1186).<ref name="BrC">Britannica Concise, [http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article- 9383275/Siege-of-Zara Siege of Zara]{{Pranala mati|date=Februari 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref> Zara berhasil direbut pada November 1202 setelah [[Pengepungan Zara|pengepungan singkat]].<ref>{{harvnb|Geoffrey of Villehardouin|1963|p=46}}.</ref> Innosensius, yang telah diberitahu mengenai rencana tersebut tetapi penentangannya diabaikan, tidak ingin membahayakan rencana Perang Salib, sehingga ia memberikan pengampunyan bersyarat kepada Tentara Salib, tetapi Venesia tidak mendapatkannya.<ref name="Br4Cr">{{cite encyclopedia|title=The Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Constantinople|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}.</ref>
 
[[Berkas:Byzantium1215.jpg|jmpl|kiri|250px|Peta yang menunjukkan pembagian Kekaisaran Romawi Timur setelah [[Perang Salib Keempat]].]]
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=== Jatuhnya Romawi Timur ===
==== Kekaisaran dalam pembuangan ====
Setelah Tentara Salib menjarah Konstantinopel tahun 1204, dua negara Romawi Timur berdiri: [[Kekaisaran Nicea]] dan [[Kedespotan Epirus]]. Negara ketiga, [[Kekaisaran Trebizond]], didirikan oleh [[Alexios I dari Trebizond]] beberapa minggu sebelum penjarahan Konstantinopel. Di antara tiga negara ini, Epirus dan Nicea merupakan negara yang paling mungkin merebut kembali Konstantinopel. Kekaisaran Nicea terus berjuang untuk tetap bertahan, dan pada pertengahan abad ke-13 telah kehilangan sebagian besar wilayahnya di Anatolia selatan.<ref>{{harvnb|Kean|2006}}; {{harvnb|Madden|2005|p=162}}; Lowe-Baker, [httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20071016205009/http://geocities.com/egfroth1/Seljuqs.htm The Seljuks of Rum].</ref> Melemahnya [[Kesultanan Rûm]] akibat [[Pertempuran Köse Dag|serangan bangsa Mongol tahun 1242–43]] memungkinkan para [[beylik]] dan [[ghazi]] untuk mendirikan kepangeranan mereka sendiri di Anatolia, sehingga melemahkan kekuasaan Romawi Timur di Asia Kecil.<ref>Lowe-Baker, [httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20091027082448/http://geocities.com/egfroth1/Seljuqs.htm The Seljuks of Rum].</ref> Akan tetapi, invasi Mongol juga memberi waktu bagi Nicea untuk mengalihkan perhatian pada [[Kekaisaran Latin]].
 
==== Penaklukan kembali Konstantinopel ====
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== Ekonomi ==
Ekonomi Romawi Timur merupakan salah satu yang paling maju di Eropa dan Mediterania selama berabad-abad. Eropa tak mampu menandingi kekuatan ekonomi Romawi Timur hingga akhir abad pertengahan. Konstantinopel merupakan pusat utama dalam jaringan perdagangan yang meliputi hampir seluruh [[Eurasia]] dan [[Afrika Utara]]. Kota tersebut juga menjadi salah satu kota utama dalam [[jalur sutra]]. Beberapa ahli menyatakan bahwa, hingga datangnya bangsa Arab pada abad ketujuh, ekonomi Romawi Timur merupakan yang terkuat di dunia. [[Penaklukan Islam|Penaklukan Arab]] menyebabkan terjadinya kemunduran dan stagnansi. Reformasi Konstantinus V (765) menandai mulainya pemulihan ekonomi yang berlangsung hingga tahun 1204. Dari abad kesepuluh hingga akhir abad keduabelas, Kekaisaran Romawi Timur memproyeksikan citra mewah, dan pengelana kagum dengan kekayaan di Konstantinopel. Semuanya berubah pada masa Perang Salib Keempat, yang membawa bencana ekonomi.<ref name="M532">{{harvnb|Magdalino|2002|p=532}}, [httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20080625192523/http://www.doaks.org/EconHist/EHB20.pdf].</ref> [[Palaiologos]] mencoba memulihkan ekonomi, tetapi negara Romawi Timur akhir tidak akan memperoleh kuasa penuh atas kekuatan ekonomi domestik dan asing. Pelan-pelan, Romawi Timur juga kehilangan pengaruhnya dalam modalitas perdagangan dan mekanisme harga, dan juga kuasa atas aliran logam-logam berharga, dan bahkan, menurut beberapa ahli, terhadap pencetakan koin-koin.<ref name="M806">{{harvnb|Matschke|2002|pp=805–806}}, [httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20080625235853/http://www.doaks.org/EconHist/EHB37.pdf].</ref>
 
Salah satu fondasi ekonomi kekaisaran adalah perdagangan. Tekstil merupakan komoditas ekspor yang paling penting.<ref name="L723">{{harvnb|Laiou|2002|p=723}}, [httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20080625235908/http://www.doaks.org/EconHist/EHB36.pdf].</ref> Negara dengan ketat menguasai perdagangan internal dan internasional, serta memiliki hak monopoli dalam mengeluarkan koin. Pemerintah mengatur tingkat bunga, dan menetapkan parameter aktivitas serikat dan perusahaan dagang, yang dikenakan bunga khusus. Kaisar dan pejabat-pejabatnya melakukan campur tangan pada masa krisis untuk menjamin penyediaan modal dan menjaga harga [[serealia]]. Pemerintah mengumpulkan hasil surplus melalui pemungutan pajak, dan mengembalikannya dalam sirkulasi melalui redistribusi dalam bentuk gaji kepada pejabat-pejabat negara, atau dalam bentuk investasi fasilitas-fasilitas umum.<ref name="L3-4">{{harvnb|Laiou|2002|pp=3–4}}, [httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20080625235933/http://www.doaks.org/EconHist/EHB01.pdf].</ref>
 
== Pemerintahan ==
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== Ilmu pengetahuan dan hukum ==
[[Berkas:ViennaDioscoridesFolio483vBirds.jpg|jmpl|ka|150px|Galeri burung pada manuskrip Romawi Timur.]]
Penulisan ala [[era klasik]] tidak pernah berhenti diberdayakan di Romawi Timur. Maka, ilmu pengetahuan Romawi Timur berhubungan dekat dengan [[filsafat kuno]] dan [[metafisika]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anastos|1962|p=409}}.</ref> Meskipun Romawi Timur berhasil menerapkan ilmu pengetahuan (seperti dalam pembangunan [[Hagia Sophia]]), setelah abad ke-6, ahli-ahli Romawi Timur tidak banyak memberi sumbangan terhadap ilmu pengetahuan. Teori-teori baru tidak banyak digagas, dan gagasan penulis-penulis klasik tak banyak dikembangkan.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohen|1994|p=395}}; Dickson, [http://www.roma.unisa.edu.au/07305/medmm.htm Mathematics Through the Middle Ages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513152720/http://www.roma.unisa.edu.au/07305/medmm.htm |date=2008-05-13 }}.</ref> Keahlian terhambat pada tahun-tahun kegelapan akibat wabah pes dan penaklukkan Arab, tetapi pada masa ''renaisans Romawi Timur'' di akhir milenium pertama, ahli-ahli Romawi Timur muncul kembali dan menjadi ahli dalam pengembangan ilmiah Arab dan Persia, terutama dalam bidang [[astronomi]] dan [[matematika]].<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|pp=116–118}}.</ref>
 
Pada abad akhir kekaisaran, ahli tata bahasa Romawi Timur bertanggung jawab dalam membawa dan menulis tata bahasa dan studi sastra Yunani Kuno ke [[Italia Renaisans]] awal.<ref>{{harvnb|Robins|1993|p=8}}.</ref> Pada periode ini, [[astronomi]] dan [[matematika]] diajarkan di Trebizond.<ref name="TM189">{{harvnb|Tatakes|Moutafakis|2003|p=189}}.</ref>
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* {{Cite book|last=Parry|first=Kenneth|title=Depicting the Word: Byzantine Iconophile Thought of the Eighth and Ninth Centuries|url=http://books.google.com/?id=BFrjJ7nMQmwC|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|year=1996|isbn=9004105026|chapter=Historical Introduction|ref=harv}}
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Baris 545:
{{Commons|Byzantine Empire|Kekaisaran Romawi Timur}}
=== Studi, sumber, dan bibliografi Bizantium ===
* Adena, L. "[http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/The+Enduring+Legacy+of+Byzantium The Enduring Legacy of Byzantium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413122722/http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/The+Enduring+Legacy+of+Byzantium |date=2020-04-13 }}", ''Clio History Journal'', 2008.
* Ciesniewski, C. "[http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/The+Byzantine+Achievement The Byzantine Achievement]", ''Clio History Journal'', 2006.
* Fox, Clinton R. [http://www.romanity.org/htm/fox.01.en.what_if_anything_is_a_byzantine.01.htm What, If Anything, Is a Byzantine? (Ensiklopedia Kaisar-kaisar Romawi Daring)]
* [http://www.third-millennium-library.com/MedievalHistory/Cambridge/IV/Eastern-Door.html The Cambridge Medieval History (IV) The Eastern Roman Empire (717–1453)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127205009/http://www.third-millennium-library.com/MedievalHistory/Cambridge/IV/Eastern-Door.html |date=2010-11-27 }}.
* [httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20080410123427/http://www.doaks.org/Byzantine.html Halaman studi Bizantium] di [[Dumbarton Oaks]]. Meliputi pranala ke beberapa teks elektronik.
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/ Byzantium: Byzantine Studies on the Internet]. Pranala ke berbagai sumber daring.
* [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans.html Translated Excerpts from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700-1204] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413131628/http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans.html |date=2001-04-13 }}. Sumber daring.
* [http://www.deremilitari.org/ De Re Militari]. Sumber-sumber untuk sejarah abad pertengahan, meliputi beberapa sumber terjemahan mengenai peperangan Bizantium.
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1c.html Medieval Sourcebook: Byzantium]. Beberapa sumber primer mengenai sejarah Romawi Timur.
Diperoleh dari "https://wiki-indonesia.club/wiki/Kekaisaran_Romawi_Timur"