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Pada abad ke-13, [[Paus Gregorius IX]] (menjabat tahun 1227–1241) menyerahkan tugas pelaksanaan inkuisisi kepada [[Dominikan|tarekat Dominikan]] dan [[Fransiskan|tarekat Fransiskan]]. Pada Akhir Abad Pertengahan, hanya [[Inggris]] dan [[Mahkota Kastila|Kastila]] negara-negara besar di Dunia Barat tanpa Inkuisisi Kepausan.
Sebagian besar inkuisitor adalah anggota-anggota tarekat yang mengajar ilmu teologi dan/atau ilmu hukum di universitas-universitas. Mereka menggunakan [[sistem inkuisitorial|prosedur-prosedur inkuisitor]], suatu praktik hukum yang lazim, hasil adapasi prosedur-prosedur peradilan Romawi Kuno.<ref>Peters, Edwards. "Inquisition", hlm. 12.</ref> Mereka mengadili perkara bidat bersama para uskup dan kelompok-kelompok "asesor" (rohaniwan dengan tugas yang kurang lebih sama dengan juri atau penasihat hukum sekarang ini), dan memberdayakan pihak-pihak berwenang setempat untuk menggelar persidangan dan mengadili ahli-ahli bidat. Selepas tahun 1200, tiap-tiap Inkuisisi dikepalai seorang [[inkuisitor agung]]. Inkuisisi-inkuisisi yang dikepalai inkuisitor agung bertahan sampai pertengaan abad ke-19.<ref>[http://libro.uca.edu/lea1/append2.htm Lea, Henry Charles. ''A History of the Inquisition of Spain''], jld. 1, apendiks 2</ref>
== Inkuisisi pada permulaan Zaman Modern ==
Dengan kian sengitnya perdebatan dan konflik di antara kubu [[Reformasi Protestan]] dan kubu [[Reformasi Katolik|Kontrareformasi Katolik]], umat Protestan mulai memandang Inkuisisi sebagai "[[liyan (filsafat)|Liyan]]" yang mengerikan,<ref>
Bdk. {{cite book|last=Haydon|first=Colin|title=Anti-Catholicism in eighteenth-century England, c. 1714-80: a political and social study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GR68AAAAIAAJ|access-date=2010-02-28|series=Studies in imperialism|year=1993|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|isbn=0-7190-2859-0|page=6|quote=Ketakutan masyarakat terhadap lembaga kepausan terfokus pada tindak persekusi terhadap para ahli bidat yang dilakukan pihak Katolik. Pada umumnya diasumsikan bahwa bilamana dimungkinkan, kaum Papis pasti akan memberantas bidat dengan cara-cara kekerasan, karena menganggap tindakan tersebut sebagai kewajiban religius. Sejarah tampaknya terlampau jelas memperlihatkan semuanya ini. [...] Inkuisisi meredam dan terus-menerus memantau silang pendapat religius di Spanyol. Kaum Papis, teristimewa Sri Paus, gemar membantai ahli bidat. "Saat masih kecil, saya betul-betul percaya bahwa Sri Paus adalah seorang wanita raksasa, mengenakan jubah yang mengerikan, yang merah warnanya karena dicelupkan ke dalam genangan darah umat Protestan," kenang [[William Cobbett]] (lahir tahun 1763), yang berasal dari daerah pedesaan Surrey.}}</ref> sementara umat Katolik memandang Jawatan Suci sebagai benteng yang perlu didirikan untuk melawan penyebaran bidat-bidat laknat.
=== Pengadilan tukang sihir ===
{{See also|Pengadilan-pengadilan tukang sihir pada awal zaman modern}}
[[File:Inquisición española.svg|thumb|Lencana Inkuisisi Spanyol tahun 1571]]<!--
While belief in [[witchcraft]], and persecutions directed at or excused by it, were widespread in pre-Christian Europe, and reflected in [[Germanic law]], the influence of the Church in the early medieval era resulted in the revocation of these laws in many places, bringing an end to traditional pagan witch hunts.<ref>Hutton, Ronald. ''The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy''. Oxford, UK and Cambridge, US: Blackwell, 1991. {{ISBN|978-0-631-17288-8}}. p. 257</ref> Throughout the medieval era, mainstream Christian teaching had denied the existence of witches and witchcraft, condemning it as pagan superstition.<ref>Behringer, ''Witches and Witch-hunts: A Global History'', p. 31 (2004). Wiley-Blackwell.</ref> However, Christian influence on popular beliefs in witches and ''maleficium'' (harm committed by magic) failed to entirely eradicate folk belief in witches.
The fierce denunciation and persecution of supposed sorceresses that characterized the cruel witchhunts of a later age were not generally found in the first thirteen hundred years of the Christian era.<ref name="Thurston">Thurston, Herbert.[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15674a.htm "Witchcraft."] ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'', Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 12 Jul. 2015</ref> The medieval Church distinguished between "white" and "black" magic.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}} Local folk practice often mixed chants, incantations, and prayers to the appropriate patron saint to ward off storms, to protect cattle, or ensure a good harvest. Bonfires on Midsummer's Eve were intended to deflect natural catastrophes or the influence of fairies, ghosts, and witches. Plants, often harvested under particular conditions, were deemed effective in healing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blog.metmuseum.org/cloistersgardens/2008/10/31/plants-in-medieval-magic-and-witchcraft-part-i/|title=Plants in Medieval Magic – The Medieval Garden Enclosed – The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York|website=blog.metmuseum.org|access-date=13 October 2017}}</ref>
Black magic was that which was used for a malevolent purpose. This was generally dealt with through confession, repentance, and charitable work assigned as penance.<ref>Del Rio, Martin Antoine, and Maxwell-Stuart, P. G. ''Investigations Into Magic'', Manchester University Press, 2000, {{ISBN|9780719049767}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=I2iCYDHYbycC&pg=PR7 p. 7]</ref> Early Irish canons treated sorcery as a crime to be visited with [[excommunication]] until adequate penance had been performed. In 1258, [[Pope Alexander IV]] ruled that inquisitors should limit their involvement to those cases in which there was some clear presumption of heretical belief.
The prosecution of witchcraft generally became more prominent in the late medieval and Renaissance era, perhaps driven partly by the upheavals of the era – the [[Black Death]], the [[Hundred Years War]], and a gradual cooling of the climate that modern scientists call the [[Little Ice Age]] (between about the 15th and 19th centuries). Witches were sometimes blamed.<ref>Levack, ''The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe'', p. 49</ref><ref>Heinrich Institoris, Heinrich; Sprenger, Jakob; Summers, Montague. ''The Malleus maleficarum of Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger''. Dover Publications; New edition, 1 June 1971; {{ISBN|0-486-22802-9}}</ref> Since the years of most intense witch-hunting largely coincide with the age of the Reformation, some historians point to the influence of the Reformation on the European witch-hunt.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Brian P. Levack|title=The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe|edition=London/New York 2013|page=110|language=de|quote=The period during which all of this reforming activity and conflict took place, the age of the Reformation, spanned the years 1520–1650. Since these years include the period when witch-hunting was most intense, some historians have claimed that the Reformation served as the mainspring of the entire European witch-hunt."}}</ref>
Dominican priest [[Heinrich Kramer]] was assistant to the Archbishop of Salzburg. In 1484 Kramer requested that [[Pope Innocent VIII]] clarify his authority to prosecute witchcraft in [[North Germany|Germany]], where he had been refused assistance by the local ecclesiastical authorities. They maintained that Kramer could not legally function in their areas.<ref>Kors, Alan Charles; Peters, Edward. ''Witchcraft in Europe, 400-1700: A Documentary History''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0-8122-1751-9}}. p. 177</ref>
The [[papal bull]] ''[[Summis desiderantes affectibus]]'' sought to remedy this jurisdictional dispute by specifically identifying the dioceses of Mainz, Köln, Trier, Salzburg, and Bremen.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/witches1.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu}}</ref> Some scholars view the bull as "clearly political".<ref>Darst, David H., "Witchcraft in Spain: The Testimony of Martín de Castañega's Treatise on Superstition and Witchcraft (1529)", ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'', 1979, vol. 123, issue 5, p. 298</ref> The bull failed to ensure that Kramer obtained the support he had hoped for. In fact he was subsequently expelled from the city of Innsbruck by the local bishop, George Golzer, who ordered Kramer to stop making false accusations. Golzer described Kramer as senile in letters written shortly after the incident. This rebuke led Kramer to write a justification of his views on witchcraft in his 1486 book ''[[Malleus Maleficarum]]'' ("Hammer against witches"). In the book, Kramer stated his view that witchcraft was to blame for bad weather. The book is also noted for its animus against women.<ref name=Thurston/> Despite Kramer's claim that the book gained acceptance from the clergy at the [[University of Cologne]], it was in fact condemned by the clergy at Cologne for advocating views that violated Catholic doctrine and standard inquisitorial procedure. In 1538 the Spanish Inquisition cautioned its members not to believe everything the ''Malleus'' said.<ref>Jolly, Raudvere, and Peters (eds.) ''Witchcraft and magic in Europe: the Middle Ages''. 2002. p. 241.</ref>
===Spanish Inquisition===
{{Main|Spanish Inquisition|Tomás de Torquemada}}
[[File:Pedro Berruguete Saint Dominic Presiding over an Auto-da-fe 1495.jpg|thumb|[[Pedro Berruguete]], ''Saint Dominic Guzmán presiding over an Auto da fe'' (c. 1495).<ref name="Prado">
[http://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/online-gallery/on-line-gallery/obra/saint-dominic-presides-over-an-auto-da-fe/?no_cache=1 ''Saint Dominic Guzmán presiding over an Auto da fe''], [[Prado Museum]]. Retrieved 2012-08-26</ref> Many artistic representations falsely depict torture and [[execution by burning|burning at the stake]] during the ''[[auto-da-fé]]'' (Portuguese for "Act of Faith").<ref name=secrets>{{Cite web|title=Secrets of the Spanish Inquisition Revealed|url=https://www.catholic.com/magazine/print-edition/secrets-of-the-spanish-inquisition-revealed|access-date=2020-10-04|website=Catholic Answers}}</ref>]]
Portugal and Spain in the late Middle Ages consisted largely of multicultural territories of Muslim and Jewish influence, reconquered from [[Al-Andalus|Islamic control]], and the new Christian authorities could not assume that all their subjects would suddenly become and remain orthodox Roman Catholics. So the Inquisition in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], in the lands of the [[Reconquista]] counties and kingdoms like [[Kingdom of León|León]], [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]], and [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]], had a special socio-political basis as well as more fundamental religious motives.<ref name=secrets/>
In some parts of Spain towards the end of the 14th century, there was a wave of violent [[anti-Judaism]], encouraged by the preaching of [[Ferrand Martinez]], [[Archdeacon]] of [[Écija]]. In the [[pogrom]]s of June 1391 in Seville, hundreds of Jews were killed, and the [[synagogue]] was completely destroyed. The number of people killed was also high in other cities, such as [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], [[Valencia]], and Barcelona.<ref>Kamen, ''Spanish Inquisition'', p. 17. Kamen cites approximate numbers for Valencia (250) and Barcelona (400), but no solid data about Córdoba.</ref>
One of the consequences of these [[pogrom]]s was the mass conversion of thousands of surviving Jews. Forced baptism was contrary to the law of the Catholic Church, and theoretically anybody who had been forcibly baptized could legally return to Judaism. However, this was very narrowly interpreted. Legal definitions of the time theoretically acknowledged that a forced baptism was not a valid sacrament, but confined this to cases where it was literally administered by physical force. A person who had consented to baptism under threat of death or serious injury was still regarded as a voluntary convert, and accordingly forbidden to revert to Judaism.<ref>[[Raymond of Peñafort]], ''Summa'', lib. 1 p.33, citing D.45 c.5.</ref> After the public violence, many of the converted "felt it safer to remain in their new religion".<ref>Kamen, ''Spanish Inquisition'', p. 10.</ref> Thus, after 1391, a new social group appeared and were referred to as ''[[conversos]]'' or ''New Christians''.
King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and Queen [[Isabella I of Castile]] established the [[Spanish Inquisition]] in 1478. In contrast to the previous inquisitions, it operated completely under royal Christian authority, though staffed by clergy and orders, and independently of the [[Holy See]]. It operated in Spain and in all Spanish colonies and territories, which included the [[Canary Islands]], the [[Kingdom of Naples]],{{Citation needed|reason=It was often wrongly assumed that the Spanish Inquisition operated in Spanish Netherlands as well. Maybe the same is true for the Kingdom of Naples.|date=December 2019}} and all Spanish possessions in North, Central, and South America. It primarily focused upon forced converts from Islam ([[Morisco]]s, [[Converso]]s and ''secret Moors'') and from [[Judaism]] ([[Converso]]s, [[Crypto-Judaism|Crypto-Jews]] and [[Marrano]]s)—both groups still resided in Spain after the end of the [[Al-Andalus|Islamic control of Spain]]—who came under suspicion of either continuing to adhere to their old religion or of having fallen back into it.
In 1492 all Jews who had not converted were expelled from Spain; those who converted became nominal Catholics and thus subject to the Inquisition.
====Inquisition in the Spanish overseas empire====
{{see also |Mexican Inquisition|Peruvian Inquisition}}
In the Americas, King Philip II set up three tribunals (each formally titled ''Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición'') in 1569, one in [[Mexican Inquisition|Mexico]], [[Cartagena de Indias]] (in modern-day Colombia) and [[Peru]]. The Mexican office administered [[Real Audiencia of Mexico|Mexico]] (central and southeastern Mexico), [[Nueva Galicia]] (northern and western Mexico), the [[Audiencia Real|Audiencia]]s of [[Guatemala]] (Guatemala, Chiapas, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica), and the [[Spanish East Indies]]. The [[Peruvian Inquisition]], based in Lima, administered all the Spanish territories in South America and [[Panama]].{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}
===Portuguese Inquisition===
{{Main|Portuguese Inquisition}}
[[File:1685 - Inquisição Portugal.jpg|thumb|A copper engraving from 1685: "Die Inquisition in Portugall"]]
The Portuguese Inquisition formally started in Portugal in 1536 at the request of King [[João III]]. [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] had asked [[Pope Leo X]] for the installation of the Inquisition in 1515, but only after his death in 1521 did [[Pope Paul III]] acquiesce. At its head stood a ''Grande Inquisidor'', or General Inquisitor, named by the Pope but selected by the Crown, and always from within the royal family.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}} The Portuguese Inquisition principally focused upon the [[Sephardi Jews]], whom the state forced to convert to Christianity. Spain had [[Alhambra decree|expelled its Sephardi population in 1492]]; many of these Spanish Jews left Spain for Portugal but eventually were subject to inquisition there as well.
The Portuguese Inquisition held its first ''auto-da-fé'' in 1540. The Portuguese inquisitors mostly focused upon the [[Jew]]ish [[New Christians]] (i.e. ''[[conversos]]'' or ''[[marranos]]''). The Portuguese Inquisition expanded its scope of operations from Portugal to its colonial possessions, including Brazil, [[Cape Verde]], and [[Goa Inquisition|Goa]]. In the colonies, it continued as a religious court, investigating and trying cases of breaches of the tenets of orthodox Roman Catholicism until 1821. King [[John III of Portugal|João III]] (reigned 1521–57) extended the activity of the courts to cover [[censorship]], [[divination]], [[witchcraft]], and [[bigamy]]. Originally oriented for a religious action, the Inquisition exerted an influence over almost every aspect of Portuguese society: political, cultural, and social.
According to [[Henry Charles Lea]], between 1540 and 1794, tribunals in [[Lisbon]], [[Porto]], [[Coimbra]], and [[Évora]] resulted in the burning of 1,175 persons, the burning of another 633 in effigy, and the penancing of 29,590.<ref>[[H.C. Lea]], ''A History of the Inquisition of Spain'', vol. 3, Book 8</ref> But documentation of 15 out of 689 autos-da-fé has disappeared, so these numbers may slightly understate the activity.<ref>{{cite book|first1=António José|last1=Saraiva|first2=Herman Prins|last2=Salomon| first3=I. S. D.|last3= Sassoon| author-link3 = Isaac S.D. Sassoon |title=The Marrano Factory: the Portuguese Inquisition and its New Christians 1536-1765|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eG8xUFivagkC|access-date=2010-04-13|orig-year=First published in Portuguese in 1969|year=2001|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-12080-8|page=102}}</ref>
====Inquisition in the Portuguese overseas empire====
{{see also |Goa Inquisition}}
The [[Goa Inquisition]], which began in 1560, was initiated by [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priest [[Francis Xavier]] from his headquarters in Malacca, originally because of the [[New Christian]]s who were living there and also in Goa and the region whose population had reverted to [[Judaism]]. The Goa inquisition also focused upon Catholic converts from [[Hinduism]] or [[Islam]] who were thought to have returned to their original ways. In addition, this inquisition prosecuted non-converts who broke prohibitions against the observance of [[Hindu]] or [[Muslim]] rites or interfered with Portuguese attempts to convert non-Christians to Catholicism.<ref name="Salomon, H. P 2001 pp. 345-7">Salomon, H. P. and Sassoon, I. S. D., in Saraiva, Antonio Jose. ''The Marrano Factory. The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians, 1536–1765'' (Brill, 2001), pgs. 345-7</ref> Aleixo Dias Falcão and Francisco Marques set it up in the palace of the [[Sabaio]] Adil Khan.
===Roman Inquisition===
{{Main|Roman Inquisition}}
With the [[Protestant Reformation]], Catholic authorities became much more ready to suspect heresy in any new ideas,<ref>{{cite book|last= Stokes|first=Adrian Durham|author-link= Adrian Stokes (critic)|title=Michelangelo: a study in the nature of art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_E7epqLi2CwC|access-date= 2009-11-26|edition=2|series=Routledge classics|orig-year=1955|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-26765-6|page=39|quote=Ludovico is so immediately settled in heaven by the poet that some commentators have divined that Michelangelo is voicing heresy, that is to say, the denial of purgatory.}}</ref>
including those of [[Renaissance humanism]],<ref>Erasmus, the arch-Humanist of the Renaissance, came under suspicion of heresy, see
{{cite book|last=Olney|first=Warren|title=Desiderius Erasmus; Paper Read Before the Berkeley Club, March 18, 1920.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EdsdOSs6VRgC|access-date=2009-11-26|year=2009|publisher=BiblioBazaar|isbn=978-1-113-40503-6|page=15|quote=Thomas More, in an elaborate defense of his friend, written to a cleric who accused Erasmus of heresy, seems to admit that Erasmus was probably the author of ''Julius''.}}</ref> previously strongly supported by many at the top of the Church hierarchy. The extirpation of heretics became a much broader and more complex enterprise, complicated by the politics of territorial Protestant powers, especially in northern Europe. The Catholic Church could no longer exercise direct influence in the politics and justice-systems of lands that officially adopted Protestantism. Thus war (the [[French Wars of Religion]], the [[Thirty Years' War]]), massacre (the [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]]) and the missional<ref>{{cite book|last=Vidmar|first=John C.|author-link=John Vidmar|title=The Catholic Church Through the Ages|year= 2005|publisher=Paulist Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8091-4234-7|page=241}}</ref> and propaganda work (by the ''[[Sacra congregatio de propaganda fide]]'')<ref>{{cite book|last=Soergel|first=Philip M.|title=Wondrous in His Saints: Counter Reformation Propaganda in Bavaria|year=1993|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=0-520-08047-5|pages=239}}</ref> of the [[Counter-Reformation]] came to play larger roles in these circumstances, and the [[Roman law]] type of a "judicial" approach to heresy represented by the Inquisition became less important overall.
In 1542 [[Pope Paul III]] established the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition as a permanent congregation staffed with [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|cardinals]] and other officials. It had the tasks of maintaining and defending the integrity of the faith and of examining and proscribing errors and false doctrines; it thus became the supervisory body of local Inquisitions.<!--pretty much copied from:--><ref>
[http://galileo.rice.edu/chr/inquisition.html "Christianity | The Inquisition".] The Galileo Project. Retrieved 2012-08-26</ref> Arguably the most famous case tried by the Roman Inquisition was that of [[Galileo affair|Galileo Galilei in 1633]].
The penances and sentences for those who confessed or were found guilty were pronounced together in a public ceremony at the end of all the processes. This was the ''sermo generalis'' or ''[[auto-da-fé]]''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
| last = Blötzer
| first = J.
| encyclopedia = The Catholic Encyclopedia
| title = Inquisition
| url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08026a.htm
| access-date = 2012-08-26
| year = 1910
| publisher = Robert Appleton Company
}}
</ref>
[[Penance]]s (not matters for the civil authorities) might consist of a pilgrimage, a public scourging, a fine, or the wearing of a cross. The wearing of two tongues of red or other brightly colored cloth, sewn onto an outer garment in an "X" pattern, marked those who were under investigation. The penalties in serious cases were confiscation of property by the Inquisition or imprisonment. This led to the possibility of false charges to enable confiscation being made against those over a certain income, particularly rich ''[[marranos]]''. Following the [[Papal States#French Revolution and Napoleonic era|French invasion of 1798]], the new authorities sent 3,000 chests containing over 100,000 Inquisition documents to France from Rome.-->
== Catatan kaki ==
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