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Siobhan Dolan, M.D., M.P.H, seorang dokter kandungan dan kebidanan serta kesehatan wanita di Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, menyatakan bahwa jika seorang wanita menginginkan kehamilan yang sehat, sebelum memulai kehamilan calon ibu harus sehat terlebih dahulu.{{sfnp|Ayahbunda, Tim Redaksi|2020|p=27|ps=: "Bila menginginkan kehamilan yang sehat, maka sebelum mulai hamil, Anda harus sehat dulu," saran Siobhan Dolan, M.D., M.P.H., dokter obgin dan kesehatan wanita di Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York. (...)"}}
 
Status gizi yang diperhatikan bukan hanya status gizi kurang, tetapi juga status gizi lebih. Status gizi kurang menyebabkan ketidakmampuan untuk menunjang pertumbuhan dan perkembangan janin dan kondisi plasenta menyuplai makanan tidak optimal. Dampak yang dapat timbul dari kondisi ini adalah keguguran,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tang|first=Shengluan|last2=Huang|first2=Jialyu|last3=Lin|first3=Jiaying|last4=Kuang|first4=Yanping|date=7 Januari 2021|title=Adverse effects of pre-pregnancy maternal underweight on pregnancy and perinatal outcomes in a freeze-all policy|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-020-03509-3|journal=BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth|volume=21|issue=1|pages=32|doi=10.1186/s12884-020-03509-3|issn=1471-2393|pmc=PMC7791874}}</ref> bayi lahir kurang bulan (prematur), kecacatan pada bayi, dan bayi BBLR (berat badan lahir rendah).{{Sfnp|Soetardjo, Susirah|2011|p=166|ps=: "Kesehatan ibu sebelum konsepsi mempengaruhi kemampuannya untuk melakukan pembuahan, memelihara kesehatan janin, dan memelihara kesehatan diri sendiri. (...) Gizi-kurang dan gizi-lebih sebelum kehamilan berpengaruh tidak baik terhadap kehamilan. Pada keadaan gizi-kurang, simpanan zat-zat gizi ibu tidak cukup untuk menunjang pertumbuhan dan perkembangan janin serta kesehatan ibu. Dalam keadaan seperti ini plasenta tidak berkembang dengan baik sehingga tidak mampu menyuplai zat-zat gizi dalam jumlah yang cukup bagi kebutuhan janin. Akibat yang mungkin terjadi adalah pertumbuhan janin terhambat, bayi cacat sejak lahir, keguguran atau bayi lahir-mati, bayi lahir kurang-bulan (prematur), atau bayi lahir dengan berat badan rendah (BBLR) (...) Gizi lebih juga berpengaruh tidak baik terhadap kehamilan dan persalinan. (...) Bayi kemungkinan dilahirkan lewat-waktu dengan berat badan lebih dari 4,0 kg. (...)"}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Li|first=Chao|last2=Zhu|first2=Ni|last3=Zeng|first3=Lingxia|last4=Dang|first4=Shaonong|last5=Zhou|first5=Jing|last6=Pei|first6=Leilei|last7=Watson|first7=Victoria|last8=Chen|first8=Tao|last9=Wang|first9=Duolao|date=13 Agustus 2018|title=Effect of maternal pre-pregnancy underweight and average gestational weight gain on physical growth and intellectual development of early school-aged children|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6089877/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|pages=12014|doi=10.1038/s41598-018-30514-6|issn=2045-2322|pmc=6089877|pmid=30104682}}</ref>
 
Ibu dengan status gizi lebih dapat berpengaruh bagi kesehatan janin dan ibu yang mengandung. Ibu dengan obesitas memiliki kemungkinan untuk melahirkan bayi dengan berat lebih dari 4 kg (makrosomia) yang akan menyulitkan persalinan,{{sfn|Lemmi-Keefe, Carol J.|2008|p=72}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alfadhli|first=Eman M.|date=6 Februari 2021|title=Maternal Obesity Influences Birth Weight More Than Gestational Diabetes|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-021-03571-5|journal=BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth|volume=21|issue=1|pages=111|doi=10.1186/s12884-021-03571-5|issn=1471-2393|pmc=PMC7866872|pmid=}}</ref> meningkatkan risiko melahirkan bayi dengan cacat lahir seperti kelainan jantung<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mills|first=James L|last2=Troendle|first2=James|last3=Conley|first3=Mary R|last4=Carter|first4=Tonia|last5=Druschel|first5=Charlotte M|date=1 Juni 2010|title=Maternal obesity and congenital heart defects: a population-based study|url=https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.28865|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=91|issue=6|pages=1543–1549|doi=10.3945/ajcn.2009.28865|issn=0002-9165}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liu|first=Xuezhen|last2=Ding|first2=Guoyong|last3=Yang|first3=Weili|last4=Feng|first4=Xia|last5=Li|first5=Yuejin|last6=Liu|first6=Huamin|last7=Zhang|first7=Qianqian|last8=Ji|first8=Long|last9=Li|first9=Dong|date=7 Juli 2019|title=Maternal Body Mass Index and Risk of Congenital Heart Defects in Infants: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis|url=https://www.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2019/1315796/|journal=BioMed Research International|language=en|volume=2019|pages=e1315796|doi=10.1155/2019/1315796|issn=2314-6133}}</ref> dan NTD (''neural tube defect'') atau kelainan kongenital akibat kegagalan penutupan lempeng saraf<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wulan|first=Anggraeni Janar|last2=Simanjuntak|first2=Desindah Loria|date=1 Sepember 2016|title=Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Kejadian Neural Tube Defect|url=https://juke.kedokteran.unila.ac.id/index.php/majority/article/view/1037|journal=Jurnal Majority|language=|volume=5|issue=3|pages=55–61|issn=2337-3776}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Koren|first=Gideon|date=15 April 2021|title=Obesity, Neural Tube Defects and Folic Acid—A Complex Relationship|url=https://imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/48/2/10.31083/j.ceog.2021.02.2304/htm|website=imrpress.com|doi=10.31083/j.ceog.2021.02.2304/htm|access-date=16 Januari 2022}}</ref> serta bayi lahir mati<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Åmark|first=H.|last2=Westgren|first2=M.|last3=Persson|first3=M.|date=19 November 2018|title=Prediction of stillbirth in women with overweight or obesity—A register-based cohort study|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6242307/|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=13|issue=11|pages=e0206940|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0206940|issn=1932-6203|pmc=6242307|pmid=30452441}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bodnar|first=Lisa M|last2=Parks|first2=W Tony|last3=Perkins|first3=Kiran|last4=Pugh|first4=Sarah J|last5=Platt|first5=Robert W|last6=Feghali|first6=Maisa|last7=Florio|first7=Karen|last8=Young|first8=Omar|last9=Bernstein|first9=Sarah|date=1 Oktober 2015|title=Maternal prepregnancy obesity and cause-specific stillbirth|url=https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.112250|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=102|issue=4|pages=858–864|doi=10.3945/ajcn.115.112250|issn=0002-9165}}</ref> atau kurang bulan,{{sfn|Lemmi-Keefe, Carol J.|2008|p=71}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Slack|first=Emma|last2=Best|first2=Kate E.|last3=Rankin|first3=Judith|last4=Heslehurst|first4=Nicola|date=21 November 2019|title=Maternal obesity classes, preterm and post-term birth: a retrospective analysis of 479,864 births in England|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-019-2585-z|journal=BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth|volume=19|issue=1|pages=434|doi=10.1186/s12884-019-2585-z|issn=1471-2393|pmc=PMC6873733|pmid=31752763}}</ref> dan menyulitkan saat pemeriksaan USG kehamilan akibat banyaknya lemak tubuh.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Obesity and Pregnancy|url=https://www.acog.org/en/womens-health/faqs/obesity-and-pregnancy|website=www.acog.org|language=|access-date=16 Januari 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paladini|first=D.|date=2009|title=Sonography in obese and overweight pregnant women: clinical, medicolegal and technical issues|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/uog.6393|journal=Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology|language=en|volume=33|issue=6|pages=720–729|doi=10.1002/uog.6393|issn=1469-0705}}</ref>
 
Selain dampak terhadap janin, status gizi lebih calon ibu juga dapat menyebabkan terjadinya hipertensi gestasional atau peningkatan tekanan darah yang terjadi saat kehamilan,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kazemian|first=Elham|last2=Sotoudeh|first2=Gity|last3=Dorosty-Motlagh|first3=Ahmad Reza|last4=Eshraghian|first4=Mohammad Reza|last5=Bagheri|first5=Minoo|date=September 2014|title=Maternal Obesity and Energy Intake as Risk Factors of Pregnancy-induced Hypertension among Iranian Women|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4221454/|journal=Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition|volume=32|issue=3|pages=486–493|issn=1606-0997|pmc=4221454|pmid=25395911}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Savitri|first=Ary I.|last2=Zuithoff|first2=Peter|last3=Browne|first3=Joyce L.|last4=Amelia|first4=Dwirani|last5=Baharuddin|first5=Mohammad|last6=Grobbee|first6=Diederick E.|last7=Uiterwaal|first7=Cuno S. P. M.|date=1 Agustus 2016|title=Does pre-pregnancy BMI determine blood pressure during pregnancy? A prospective cohort study|url=https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/6/8/e011626|journal=BMJ Open|language=en|volume=6|issue=8|pages=e011626|doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011626|issn=2044-6055|pmid=27515754}}</ref> [[Pre-eklampsia|preeklampsia]] sebagai akibat dari hipertensi gestasional,{{sfn|Lemmi-Keefe, Carol J.|2008|p=70}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shao|first=Yawen|last2=Qiu|first2=Jie|last3=Huang|first3=Huang|last4=Mao|first4=Baohong|last5=Dai|first5=Wei|last6=He|first6=Xiaochun|last7=Cui|first7=Hongmei|last8=Lin|first8=Xiaojuan|last9=Lv|first9=Ling|date=1 Desember 2017|title=Pre-pregnancy BMI, gestational weight gain and risk of preeclampsia: a birth cohort study in Lanzhou, China|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-017-1567-2|journal=BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth|volume=17|issue=1|pages=400|doi=10.1186/s12884-017-1567-2|issn=1471-2393}}</ref> diabetes gestasional,{{sfn|Lemmi-Keefe, Carol J.|2008|p=70}}{{sfnp|Shanty, Sandra|2013|p=52|ps=: "Setiap wanita dapat berpotensi mengalami gestasional diabetes. Meskipun demikian, beberapa wanita memiliki risiko yang lebih besar. (...)Perempuan akan lebih berisiko terkena diabetes kehamilan jika memiliki kelebihan berat badan secara signifikan dengan indeks massa tubuh (BMI) 30 atau lebih tinggi."}} dan gangguan [[apnea tidur]] obstruktif yang akan meningkatkan risiko terjadinya peningkatan tekanan darah,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ghesquière|first=L.|last2=Deruelle|first2=P.|last3=Ramdane|first3=Y.|last4=Garabedian|first4=C.|last5=Charley-Monaca|first5=C.|last6=Dalmas|first6=A.-F.|date=8 September 2020|title=Obstructive sleep apnea in obese pregnant women: A prospective study|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7478531/|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=15|issue=9|pages=e0238733|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0238733|issn=1932-6203|pmc=7478531|pmid=32898189}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dominguez|first=Jennifer E.|last2=Krystal|first2=Andrew D.|last3=Habib|first3=Ashraf S.|date=November 2018|title=Obstructive Sleep Apnea in Pregnant Women: A Review of Pregnancy Outcomes and an Approach to Management|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6733415/|journal=Anesthesia and analgesia|volume=127|issue=5|pages=1167–1177|doi=10.1213/ANE.0000000000003335|issn=0003-2999|pmc=6733415|pmid=29649034}}</ref> [[tromboembolisme vena]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Malinowski|first=Ann Kinga|last2=Bomba-Opoń|first2=Dorota|last3=Parrish|first3=Jacqueline|last4=Sarzyńska|first4=Urszula|last5=Farine|first5=Dan|date=2017|title=Venous tThromboembolism in Obese Pregnant Women: Approach to Diagnosis and Management|url=https://journals.viamedica.pl/ginekologia_polska/article/view/GP.a2017.0083|journal=Ginekologia Polska|language=|volume=88|issue=8|pages=453–459|doi=10.5603/GP.a2017.0083|issn=2543-6767}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sultan|first=Alyshah Abdul|last2=West|first2=Joe|last3=Tata|first3=Laila J.|last4=Fleming|first4=Kate M.|last5=Nelson-Piercy|first5=Catherine|last6=Grainge|first6=Matthew J.|date=7 November 2013|title=Risk of first venous thromboembolism in pregnant women in hospital: population based cohort study from England|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f6099|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=347|pages=f6099|doi=10.1136/bmj.f6099|issn=1756-1833|pmid=24201164}}</ref> proses persalinan yang sulit dan peningkatan kemungkinan [[operasi sesar]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fitzsimons|first=Kate J|last2=Modder|first2=Jo|last3=Greer|first3=Ian A|date=Juni 2009|title=Obesity in Pregnancy: Risks and Management|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4989730/|journal=Obstetric Medicine|volume=2|issue=2|pages=52–62|doi=10.1258/om.2009.090009|issn=1753-495X|pmc=4989730|pmid=27582812}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nkoka|first=Owen|last2=Ntenda|first2=Peter Austin Morton|last3=Senghore|first3=Thomas|last4=Bass|first4=Paul|date=3 April 2019|title=Maternal overweight and obesity and the risk of caesarean birth in Malawi|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6448310/|journal=Reproductive Health|volume=16|pages=40|doi=10.1186/s12978-019-0700-2|issn=1742-4755|pmc=6448310|pmid=30944000}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brenes-Monge|first=Alexander|last2=Saavedra-Avendaño|first2=Biani|last3=Alcalde-Rabanal|first3=Jacqueline|last4=Darney|first4=Blair G.|date=11 Juli 2019|title=Are overweight and obesity associated with increased risk of cesarean delivery in Mexico? A cross-sectional study from the National Survey of Health and Nutrition|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-019-2393-5|journal=BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth|volume=19|issue=1|pages=239|doi=10.1186/s12884-019-2393-5|issn=1471-2393|pmc=PMC6624890|pmid=31296185}}</ref> dan menimbulkan masalah kesehatan mental bagi ibu hamil.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marchi|first=Jamile|last2=Berg|first2=Marie|last3=Dencker|first3=Anna|last4=Olander|first4=Ellinor|last5=Begley|first5=Cecily|date=1 Juni 2015|title=Risks associated with obesity in pregnancy, for the mother and baby: a systematic review of reviews: Obesity in pregnancy - a review of reviews|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277336458_Risks_associated_with_obesity_in_pregnancy_for_the_mother_and_baby_a_systematic_review_of_reviews_Obesity_in_pregnancy_-_a_review_of_reviews|journal=Obesity Reviews|volume=16|doi=10.1111/obr.12288}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Molyneaux|first=Emma|last2=Poston|first2=Lucilla|last3=Ashurst-Williams|first3=Sarah|last4=Howard|first4=Louise M.|date=April 2014|title=Obesity and Mental Disorders During Pregnancy and Postpartum: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4254698/|journal=Obstetrics and gynecology|volume=123|issue=4|pages=857–867|doi=10.1097/AOG.0000000000000170|issn=0029-7844|pmc=4254698|pmid=24785615}}</ref>
 
Kekurangan gizi akan menyebabkan gangguan pada fungsi hipotalamus yang akan memengaruhi hormon gonadotropin sehingga berdampak pada siklus ovulasi. Pada calon ibu hamil dengan status gizi lebih akan terjadi peningkatan risiko menstruasi anovulasi sehingga mengganggu kesuburan.{{sfn|Maita, Liva|2019|p=65}}
 
=== Asam folat ===
 
=== Kalsium ===
 
=== Zat besi ===
 
=== Iodin ===
 
=== Asam lemak omega 3 ===
 
=== Serat ===
 
=== Protein ===
 
== Gizi selama masa kehamilan ==
Baris 510 ⟶ 526:
 
==== Produk susu segar ====
Ibu hamil dianjurkan untuk tidak mengonsumsi susu segar yang tidak dipasteurisasi<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Zhaoyun|last2=Tao|first2=Xiaojing|last3=Liu|first3=Shan|last4=Zhao|first4=Yutong|last5=Yang|first5=Xiuhua|date=26 Mei 2021|title=An Update Review on Listeria Infection in Pregnancy|url=https://www.dovepress.com/an-update-review-on-listeria-infection-in-pregnancy-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR|journal=Infection and Drug Resistance|language=|volume=14|pages=1967–1978|doi=10.2147/IDR.S313675}}</ref> dan produk turunannya seperti [[yoghurt]], [[krim]] dan [[es krim]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nutrition During Pregnancy|url=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/nutrition-during-pregnancy|website=www.hopkinsmedicine.org|language=en|access-date=2022-01-20}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Begitu juga dengan beberapa jenis [[keju]] seperti keju lunak [[brie]] dan [[camembert]] dan keju biru (blue veined) yang terbuat dari susu sapi yang tidak dipasteurisasi serta keju yang terbuat dari susu kambing atau domba.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|date=12 Januari 2022|title=The Dangers of Raw Milk: Unpasteurized Milk Can Pose a Serious Health Risk|url=https://www.fda.gov/food/buy-store-serve-safe-food/dangers-raw-milk-unpasteurized-milk-can-pose-serious-health-risk|website=www.fda.gov|access-date=17 Januari 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=Oktober 2018|title=What not to eat when pregnant - British Nutrition Foundation|url=https://www.nutrition.org.uk/life-stages/pregnancy/dietary-concerns-during-pregnancy/what-not-to-eat-when-pregnant/|website=www.nutrition.org.uk|access-date=17 Januari 2022}}</ref> Produk susu ini dapat menyebabkan infeksi ''[[Listeria monocytogenes]]'', ''[[Campylobacter jejuni]], [[Salmonella]]'' species, ''[[Brucella]]'' species, and ''[[Escherichia coli]].''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brady|first=Michael T|last2=Byington|first2=Carrie L.|last3=Davies|first3=H. Hele|last4=Edwards|first4=Kathryn M.|last5=Glode|first5=Mary P.|last6=Jackson|first6=Mary Anne|last7=Keyserling|first7=Harry L.|last8=Maldonaldo|first8=Yvonne A.|last9=Murray|first9=Dennis L.|date=1 Januari 2014|title=Consumption of Raw or Unpasteurized Milk and Milk Products by Pregnant Women and Children|url=https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-3502|journal=Pediatrics|volume=133|issue=1|pages=175–179|doi=10.1542/peds.2013-3502|issn=0031-4005}}</ref>
 
Listeria adalah bakteri yang mampu menembus barier plasenta dan menyebabkan infeksi pada janin.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Janakiraman|first=Vanitha|date=2008|title=Listeriosis in Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2621056/|journal=Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology|volume=1|issue=4|pages=179–185|issn=1941-2797|pmc=2621056|pmid=19173022}}</ref> Listeria dapat menyebabkan keguguran, kelahiran prematur, dan keracunan dalam darah ibu hamil.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Yim|first=Li-Wern|date=13 Desember 2019|title=Listeria and pregnancy {{!}} Health Navigator NZ|url=https://www.healthnavigator.org.nz/health-a-z/l/listeria-and-pregnancy/|website=Health Navigator New Zealand|language=|access-date=17 Januari 2022}}</ref>
Baris 527 ⟶ 543:
 
==== Alkohol ====
Tidak ada jumlah minimal [[alkohol]] yang diperbolehkan selama kehamilan. Oleh karena itu alkohol adalah minuman yang sangat dianjurkan untuk dihindari.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kelley|first=Ryan|title=What are the Effects & Dangers of Alcohol During Pregnancy?|url=https://americanaddictioncenters.org/alcoholism-treatment/dangers-pregnancy|website=American Addiction Centers|language=|access-date=19 Januari 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Charness|first=Michael E.|last2=Riley|first2=Edward P.|last3=Sowell|first3=Elizabeth R.|date=Februari 2016|title=Drinking During Pregnancy and the Developing Brain: Is Any Amount Safe?|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4788102/|journal=Trends in cognitive sciences|volume=20|issue=2|pages=80–82|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2015.09.011|issn=1364-6613|pmc=4788102|pmid=26801950}}</ref> Alkohol dapat memengaruhi suplai makanan untuk janin. Hal ini timbul dari ketidakseimbangan aliran darah janin yang terjadi karena penurunan availabilitas oksida nitrat dan peningkatan [[stres oksidatif]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sebastiani|first=Giorgia|last2=Borrás-Novell|first2=Cristina|last3=Alsina Casanova|first3=Miguel|last4=Pascual Tutusaus|first4=Mireia|last5=Ferrero Martínez|first5=Silvia|last6=Gómez Roig|first6=María Dolores|last7=García-Algar|first7=Oscar|date=2 Agustus 2018|title=The Effects of Alcohol and Drugs of Abuse on Maternal Nutritional Profile during Pregnancy|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6116049/|journal=Nutrients|volume=10|issue=8|pages=1008|doi=10.3390/nu10081008|issn=2072-6643|pmc=6116049|pmid=30072661}}</ref>
 
Konsumsi alkohol selama kehamilan akan menyebabkan peningkatan terjadinya angka keguguran,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sundermann|first=Alexandra C.|last2=Zhao|first2=Sifang|last3=Young|first3=Chantay L.|last4=Lam|first4=LeAnn|last5=Jones|first5=Sarah H.|last6=Velez Edwards|first6=Digna R.|last7=Hartmann|first7=Katherine E.|date=13 Juni 2019|title=Alcohol Use in Pregnancy and Miscarriage: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6677630/|journal=Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research|pages=10.1111/acer.14124|doi=10.1111/acer.14124|issn=0145-6008|pmc=6677630|pmid=31194258}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhuvaneswar|first=Chaya G.|last2=Chang|first2=Grace|last3=Epstein|first3=Lucy A.|last4=Stern|first4=Theodore A.|date=2007|title=Alcohol Use During Pregnancy: Prevalence and Impact|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2139915/|journal=Primary Care Companion to The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=9|issue=6|pages=455–460|issn=1523-5998|pmc=2139915|pmid=18185825}}</ref> gangguan perkembangan otak janin,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Goodlett|first=Charles R.|last2=Horn|first2=Kristin H.|title=Mechanisms of Alcohol-Induced Damage to the Developing|url=https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh25-3/175-184.htm|website=pubs.niaaa.nih.gov|access-date=19 Januari 2022}}</ref> malanutrisi janin sehingga berat badannya rendah, dan ''fetal alcohol syndrome'' (FAS) atau kumpulan gejala pada anak akibat paparan alkohol dalam jumlah besar semasa dalam kandungan.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|date=2002-3|title=Fetal alcohol syndrome: What you should know about drinking during pregnancy|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2794811/|journal=Paediatrics & Child Health|volume=7|issue=3|pages=177–178|issn=1205-7088|pmc=2794811|pmid=20046290}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2 Desember 2020|title=Drinking Alcohol While Pregnant|url=https://www.nhs.uk/pregnancy/keeping-well/drinking-alcohol-while-pregnant/|website=nhs.uk|language=|access-date=19 Januari 2022}}</ref>
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