Gizi dan kehamilan: Perbedaan antara revisi

Untuk persiapan kehamilan, seorang wanita setidaknya mengonsumsi 400 mcg [[asam folat]] (vitamin B9)per hari dua atau tiga bulan sebelum merencanakan kehamilan dan selama trimester pertama.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|date=5 Juni 2018|title=Benefits of taking folic acid before pregnancy|url=https://www.tommys.org/pregnancy-information/planning-a-pregnancy/are-you-ready-to-conceive/benefits-taking-folic-acid-pregnancy|website=www.tommys.org|language=|access-date=23 Januari 2022}}</ref>{{sfn|Suririnah, dr.|2009|p=35}} Konsumsi asam folat bertujuan untuk mencegah terjadinya [[kelainan bawaan]] ''neural tube defect'' ([[defek tuba neural]])<ref>{{Cite web|last=Richards|first=Tamara|last2=Brown|first2=Jamal|date=17 September 2021|title=Folate Deficiency and Neural Tube Defects in Pregnancy|url=https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/folate-deficiency-and-neural-tube-defects-in-pregnancy|website=www.uspharmacist.com|language=|access-date=23 Januari 2022}}</ref> seperti [[spina bifida]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=House|first=Simon H|last2=Nichols|first2=John AA|last3=Rae|first3=Sarah|date=13 Mei 2021|title=Folates, folic acid and preconception care – a review|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8127769/|journal=JRSM Open|volume=12|issue=5|pages=2054270420980875|doi=10.1177/2054270420980875|issn=2054-2704|pmc=|pmid=}}</ref> dan [[anensefali]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tafuri|first=Sean M.|last2=Lui|first2=Forshing|date=2022|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545244/|title=Embryology, Anencephaly|location=Treasure Island (FL)|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|pmid=31424828}}</ref> Angka kejadian defek tuba neural dapat dikurangi hingga 70%{{sfn|Naviri, Tim|2011|p=11}} dan spina bifida serta anensefali hingga 50% dengan konsumsi asam folat.{{sfn|Naviri, Tim|2011|p=118}}

Pada dasarnya hampir semua makanan dan minuman boleh dikonsumsi oleh wanita yang sedang hamil. Namun, beberapa jenis makanan dapat menyebabkan infeksi dan gangguan kehamilan serta janin sehingga tidak boleh dikonsumsi atau dapat dikonsumsi dalam jumlah terbatas.{{sfn|Indiarti, M.T.|2019|p=107}}{{sfn|Naviri, Tim|2011|p=185}}

Konsumsi kafeina yang berlebihan (8 cangkir kopi per hari) akan meningkatkan kadar katekolamin sehingga akan menyebabkan [[vasokonstriksi]] [[pembuluh darah]] [[plasenta]]. Hal ini akan menyebabkan peningkatan denyut jantung janin dan [[aritmia]] sehingga oksigenasi janin akan menurun. Penelitian pada hewan coba memperlihatkan kafeina yang berlebih akan menyebabkan kecatatan pada [[jantung]] karena efek [[teratogenik]]<nowiki/>nya.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jahanfar|first=Shayesteh|last2=Jaafar|first2=Sharifah Halimah|date=9 Juni 2015|title=Effect of Restricted Caffeine Intake by Mother on Fetal, Neonatal and Pregnancy Outcomes|url=https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD006965.pub4/full|journal=Cochrane Library|issue=2|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006965.pub3|pmid=23459573}}</ref> Selain itu, beberapa penelitian menunjukkan peningkatan angka keguguran<ref>{{Cite web|title=Many pregnant women are over-consuming caffeine|url=https://www.tommys.org/pregnancy-information/blogs-and-stories/im-pregnant/pregnancy-news-and-blogs/many-pregnant-women-are-over-consuming-caffeine|website=www.tommys.org|language=|access-date=18 Januari 2022}}</ref> atau perdarahan di awal kehamilan,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Choi|first=Hansol|last2=Koo|first2=Seul|last3=Park|first3=Hyun-Young|date=21 Februari 2020|title=Maternal coffee intake and the risk of bleeding in early pregnancy: a cross-sectional analysis|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-020-2798-1|journal=BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth|volume=20|issue=1|pages=121|doi=10.1186/s12884-020-2798-1|issn=1471-2393|pmc=PMC7035749|pmid=32085746}}</ref> bayi lahir mati,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wisborg|first=Kirsten|last2=Kesmodel|first2=Ulrik|last3=Bech|first3=Bodil Hammer|last4=Hedegaard|first4=Morten|last5=Henriksen|first5=Tine Brink|date=22 Februari 2003|title=Maternal consumption of coffee during pregnancy and stillbirth and infant death in first year of life: prospective study|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC149440/|journal=BMJ : British Medical Journal|volume=326|issue=7386|pages=420|doi=10.1136/bmj.326.7386.420|issn=0959-8138|pmid=12595379}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=New research suggests caffeine raises stillbirth risk in pregnancy|url=https://www.rcog.org.uk/en/news/new-research-suggests-caffeine-raises-stillbirth-risk-in-pregnancy/|website=Royal College of Obstetricians &amp; Gynaecologists|language=|access-date=18 Januari 2022}}</ref> BBLR,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sengpiel|first=Verena|last2=Elind|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Bacelis|first3=Jonas|last4=Nilsson|first4=Staffan|last5=Grove|first5=Jakob|last6=Myhre|first6=Ronny|last7=Haugen|first7=Margaretha|last8=Meltzer|first8=Helle Margrete|last9=Alexander|first9=Jan|date=19 Februari 2013|title=Maternal caffeine intake during pregnancy is associated with birth weight but not with gestational length: results from a large prospective observational cohort study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-42|journal=BMC Medicine|volume=11|issue=1|pages=42|doi=10.1186/1741-7015-11-42|issn=1741-7015|pmc=PMC3606471|pmid=23421532}}</ref> [[leukemia]] akut pada usia kanak-kanak,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Latino-Martel|first=Paule|last2=Chan|first2=Doris S. M.|last3=Druesne-Pecollo|first3=Nathalie|last4=Barrandon|first4=Emilie|last5=Hercberg|first5=Serge|last6=Norat|first6=Teresa|date=1 Mei 2010|title=Maternal Alcohol Consumption during Pregnancy and Risk of Childhood Leukemia: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|url=https://cebp.aacrjournals.org/content/19/5/1238|journal=Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Biomarkers|language=|volume=19|issue=5|pages=1238–1260|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-09-1110|issn=1055-9965|pmid=20447918}}</ref> dan kelebihan berat badan atau [[obesitas anak]] akibat kafeina.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=James|first=Jack E.|date=1 Juni 2021|title=Maternal caffeine consumption and pregnancy outcomes: a narrative review with implications for advice to mothers and mothers-to-be|url=https://ebm.bmj.com/content/26/3/114|journal=BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine|language=|volume=26|issue=3|pages=114–115|doi=10.1136/bmjebm-2020-111432|issn=2515-446X|pmid=32843532}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Frayer|first=Natalie C|last2=Kim|first2=Yeonsoo|date=2020|title=Caffeine Intake During Pregnancy and Risk of Childhood Obesity: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7545400/|journal=International Journal of Maternal and Child Health and AIDS|volume=9|issue=3|pages=364–380|doi=10.21106/ijma.387|issn=2161-8674|pmc=7545400|pmid=}}</ref>

Hasil penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Jessica L. Gleason dan kawan-kawan pada tahun 2021 menunjukkan bahkan dengan konsumsi kafeina 200 mg per hari dapat mengganggu perkembangan janin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gleason|first=Jessica L.|last2=Tekola-Ayele|first2=Fasil|last3=Sundaram|first3=Rajeshwari|last4=Hinkle|first4=Stefanie N.|last5=Vafai|first5=Yassaman|last6=Buck Louis|first6=Germaine M.|last7=Gerlanc|first7=Nicole|last8=Amyx|first8=Melissa|last9=Bever|first9=Alaina M.|date=25 Maret 2021|title=Association Between Maternal Caffeine Consumption and Metabolism and Neonatal Anthropometry: A Secondary Analysis of the NICHD Fetal Growth Studies–Singletons|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.3238|journal=JAMA Network Open|volume=4|issue=3|pages=e213238–e213238|doi=10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.3238|issn=2574-3805}}</ref>

Kedua bahan makanan ini boleh dikonsumsi dalam jumlah terbatas. Garam yang berlebihan dapat meningkatkan risiko komplikasi kehamilan seperti peningkatan tekanan darah yang akan menyebabkan preeklampsia.{{sfn|Suririnah, dr.|2009|p=42}} Jumlah garam yang dianjurkan untuk perempuan yang sedang mengandung tidak lebih dari 2300 mg per hari atau sekitar 1 sendok teh.{{sfn|Suririnah,<ref dr.|2009|pname=42}}":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=de Bellefonds|first=Colleen|date=27 Mei 2021|editor-last=Alrahmani|editor-first=Layan|title=Salty Food During Pregnancy|url=https://www.babycenter.com/pregnancy/diet-and-fitness/is-it-safe-to-eat-a-lot-of-salty-foods-during-pregnancy_2348#:~:text=Getting%20too%20much%20salt%20in,increase%20your%20risk%20of%20preeclampsia.|website=www.babycenter.com|access-date=25 Januari 2022}}</ref>

Gula yang berlebihan akan menyebabkan diabetes gestasional.{{sfn|Suririnah, dr.|2009|p=42}} WHO menganjurkan konsumsi gula di bawah 10% dari kebutuhan energi harian total dan mengurangi gula dari makanan yang telah diproses.<ref untukname=":2" mencegah penyakit pembuluh darah jantung dan obesitas./><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seo|first=Yuri|last2=Jeong|first2=Yeon Seon|last3=Koo|first3=Kyung‐A|last4=Yang|first4=Jeong In|last5=Park|first5=Yoo Kyoung|date=10 Juni 2020|title=Maternal nutrition intervention focused on the adjustment of salt and sugar intake can improve pregnancy outcomes|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7382176/|journal=Food Science & Nutrition|volume=8|issue=7|pages=3900–3911|doi=10.1002/fsn3.1699|issn=2048-7177|pmc=7382176|pmid=32724651}}</ref> Konsumsi gula dan atau pemanis buatan meningkatkan kemungkinan perlemakan hati, [[resistensi insulin]]/intoleransi glukosa, hipertensi, bayi lahir prematur, dan atau preeklampsia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Goran|first=M. I.|last2=Plows|first2=J. F.|last3=Ventura|first3=E. E.|date=Agustus 2019|title=Effects of consuming sugars and alternative sweeteners during pregnancy on maternal and child health: evidence for a secondhand sugar effect|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-nutrition-society/article/effects-of-consuming-sugars-and-alternative-sweeteners-during-pregnancy-on-maternal-and-child-health-evidence-for-a-secondhand-sugar-effect/2F31AE3E8099B7989ABB69F4E1EB97F5|journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society|language=en|volume=78|issue=3|pages=262–271|doi=10.1017/S002966511800263X|issn=0029-6651}}</ref> Konsumsi gula berlebih saat kehamilan juga dapat meningkatkan risiko melahirkan anak dengan kemampuan kognitif termasuk kemampuan nonverbal untuk memecahkan masalah serta kapasitas memori verbal yang lebih rendah.<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 September 2018|title=How Too Much Sugar Is Harmful in Pregnancy|url=https://health.clevelandclinic.org/moms-to-be-too-much-sugar-during-pregnancy-can-hurt-your-childs-brain-function/|website=Cleveland Clinic|language=|access-date=25 Januari 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cohen|first=Juliana F. W.|last2=Rifas-Shiman|first2=Sheryl L.|last3=Young|first3=Jessica|last4=Oken|first4=Emily|date=1 Juni 2018|title=Associations of Prenatal and Child Sugar Intake With Child Cognition|url=https://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(18)31606-4/abstract|journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine|language=English|volume=54|issue=6|pages=727–735|doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2018.02.020|issn=0749-3797|pmid=29674185}}</ref>