Diskriminasi: Perbedaan antara revisi

Diskriminasi ras dan etnis membedakan individu berdasarkan perbedaan ras dan etnis yang nyata dan dirasakan dan merujuk pada berbagai bentuk [[hukuman etnis]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kislev|first=Elyakim|date=2016-09-19|title=Deciphering the 'Ethnic Penalty' of Immigrants in Western Europe: A Cross-Classified Multilevel Analysis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11205-016-1451-x|journal=Social Indicators Research|volume=134|issue=2|pages=725–745|doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1451-x}}</ref><ref name="carmichael & woods, 2000">{{Cite journal|last=Carmichael, F.|last2=Woods, R.|year=2000|title=Ethnic Penalties in Unemployment and Occupational Attainment: Evidence for Britain|journal=International Review of Applied Economics|volume=14|issue=1|pages=71–98|doi=10.1080/026921700101498}}</ref> Hal ini juga dapat merujuk pada keyakinan bahwa kelompok manusia memiliki ciri-ciri perilaku yang berbeda sesuai dengan penampilan fisik dan dapat dibagi berdasarkan [[Supremasisme|keunggulan]] satu [[Ras manusia|ras]] di atas ras yang lainnya.<ref name="Dennis">{{Cite journal|last=Dennis, Rutledge M.|year=1995|title=Social Darwinism, scientific racism, and the metaphysics of race|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-negro-education_summer-1995_64_3/page/243|journal=Journal of Negro Education|volume=64|issue=3|pages=243–52|doi=10.2307/2967206|jstor=2967206}}</ref><ref name="oxforddictionaries.com">[http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/racism Racism] Oxford Dictionaries</ref><ref name="Ghani">{{Cite book|last=Ghani|first=Navid|date=2008|title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-4129-2694-2|editor-last=Schaefer|editor-first=Richard T.|pages=1113–1115|chapter=Racism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YMUola6pDnkC&q=racism}}</ref><ref name="newman, D.M.">{{Cite book|last=Newman|first=D. M.|year=2012|title=Sociology : exploring the architecture of everyday life|url=https://archive.org/details/sociologyexplori0000newm_y8x0|location=Los Angeles|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-4129-8729-5|edition=9th|page=[https://archive.org/details/sociologyexplori0000newm_y8x0/page/405 405]|quote=racism: Belief that humans are subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as superior or inferior.}}</ref> Bisa juga diartikan sebagai [[prasangka]], diskriminasi, atau antagonisme yang ditujukan kepada orang lain karena mereka berbeda ras atau [[Kelompok etnik|etnis]].<ref name="oxforddictionaries.com" /><ref name="Ghani" /> Varian modern dari rasisme sering didasarkan pada persepsi sosial tentang perbedaan biologis antara masyarakat. Pandangan-pandangan ini dapat berbentuk [[tindakan sosial]], praktik atau kepercayaan, atau [[sistem politik]] dengan ras-ras tertentu berkedudukan lebih tinggi atau lebih rendah. Supremasi ras ini didasarkan pada sifat, kemampuan, atau kualitas yang dianggap dapat diwariskan secara turun temurun.<ref name="oxforddictionaries.com" /><ref name="Ghani" /><ref name="newman">{{Cite book|last=Newman|first=D.M.|year=2012|title=Sociology: exploring the architecture of everyday life|url=https://archive.org/details/sociologyexplori0000newm_y8x0|location=Los Angeles|publisher=Sage|isbn=978-1-4129-8729-5|edition=9th|page=[https://archive.org/details/sociologyexplori0000newm_y8x0/page/405 405]|quote=racism: Belief that humans are subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as superior or inferior.}}</ref> Pandangan ini telah menjadi kebijakan resmi pemerintah di beberapa negara, seperti [[Afrika Selatan]] selama era [[apartheid]]. Kebijakan diskriminatif terhadap etnis minoritas termasuk juga diskriminasi berbasis ras terhadap etnis [[India Malaysia|India]] dan Tionghoa di Malaysia.<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7121534.stm Malaysia's lingering ethnic divide]". March 4, 2008. BBC News.</ref> Setelah [[Perang Vietnam]], banyak [[pengungsi]] [[Orang perahu Vietnam|Vietnam]] pindah ke Australia dan Amerika Serikat, tempat mereka juga menghadapi diskriminasi.<ref>Levine, Bertram. (2005). "Not All Black and White". J. Cropp (Ed.), ''Resolving Racial Conflict'', 193-218. London: University of Missouri Press.</ref>

Seksisme adalah bentuk diskriminasi berdasarkan jenis kelamin atau gender seseorang. Diskriminasi ini sering dikaitkan dengan [[Stereotipe|stereotip]] dan [[peran gender]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Matsumoto|first=David|year=2001|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookculturep00mats|title=The Handbook of Culture and Psychology|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-513181-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookculturep00mats/page/n213 197]|url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nakdimen|first=K. A.|year=1984|title=The Physiognomic Basis of Sexual Stereotyping|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_1984-04_141_4/page/499|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=141|issue=4|pages=499–503|doi=10.1176/ajp.141.4.499|pmid=6703126}}</ref> dan dapat meliputi keyakinan bahwa satu jenis kelamin atau gender secara intrinsik lebih unggul dari jenis kelamin yang lain.<ref name=":0a">{{Cite book|last=Witt|first=Jon|date=2017|title=SOC 2018|location=New York|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=9781259702723|edition=5th|oclc=968304061}}{{Page needed}}</ref> Seksisme ekstrim dapat mendorong [[pelecehan seksual]], [[pemerkosaan]], dan bentuk-bentuk [[Kekerasan seksual|kekerasan seksual lainnya]].<ref>Forcible Rape Institutionalized Sexism in the Criminal Justice System| Gerald D. Robin Division of Criminal Justice, University of New Haven</ref> Diskriminasi gender termasuk seksisme dan diskriminasi terhadap orang-orang berdasarkan [[Identitas gender|identitas gender mereka]]<ref name="Macklem">{{Cite book|last=Macklem|first=Tony|year=2003|title=Beyond Comparison: Sex and Discrimination|location=New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-82682-2}}</ref> atau gender atau perbedaan jenis kelamin mereka.<ref name="Lenhart">{{Cite book|last=Sharyn Ann Lenhart|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rt2SAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6|title=Clinical Aspects of Sexual Harassment and Gender Discrimination: Psychological Consequences and Treatment Interventions|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1135941314|page=6|quote=GENDER OR SEX DISCRIMINATION: This term refers to the types of gender bias that have a negative impact. The term has legal, as well as theoretical and psychological, definitions. Psychological consequences can be more readily inferred from the latter, but both definitions are of significance. Theoretically, gender discrimination has been described as (1) the unequal rewards that men and women receive in the workplace or academic environment because of their gender or sex difference (DiThomaso, 1989); (2) a process occurring in work or educational settings in which an individual is overtly or covertly limited access to an opportunity or a resource because of a sex or is given the opportunity or the resource reluctantly and may face harassment for picking it (Roeske & Pleck, 1983); or (3) both.|access-date=April 20, 2018}}</ref> Diskriminasi gender secara khusus didefinisikan dalam hal [[Ketidaksetaraan tempat kerja|ketidaksetaraan di tempat kerja]].<ref name="Lenhart" /> Diskriminasi berdasarkan seks atau jenis kelamin mungkin timbul dari kebiasaan dan norma-norma sosial atau budaya.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Christina Macfarlane, Sean Coppack and James Masters|title=FIFA must act after death of Iran's 'Blue Girl,' says activist|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/12/football/iran-blue-girl-sahar-khodayari-spt-intl/index.html|website=CNN}}</ref>