|
Dalam [[terminologi]] [[Toponimi|toponim]], nama masing-masing kota dan desa disebut ''astionim'' (dari [[bahasa Yunani Kuno]] ''ἄστυ'' 'kota atau kota praja' dan ''ὄνομα'' 'nama').
==Sejarah==
[[File:Oldest arch 4.JPG|thumb|right|Sebuah gapura dari peradaban [[Sumeria]] kuno yaitu [[Ur]], yang berkembang pada milenium ketiga SM, dapat dilihat di Tell el-Mukayyar sekarang di [[Irak]]]]
[[File:Mohenjo-daro.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mohenjo-daro]], sebuah kota peradaban [[Sungai Indus|Lembah Indus]] di [[Pakistan]], yang dibangun kembali enam kali atau lebih, menggunakan batu bata dengan ukuran standar, dan mengikuti tata letak kisi yang sama—juga pada milenium ketiga SM.]]
[[File:Teotihuacán 2012-09-28 00-07-11.jpg|thumb|Pandangan udara dari apa yang dulunya pusat kota [[Teotihuacan]] menunjukkan [[Piramida Matahari]], [[Piramida Bulan]], dan jalan prosesi yang berfungsi sebagai tulang punggung sistem jalan kota.]]
Kota-kota di [[Yerikho]], [[Aleppo]], [[Al Fayyum|Al-Fayyum]], [[Yerevan]], [[Kota Athena|Athena]], [[Damaskus]] dan [[Argos]] termasuk di antara mereka yang mengklaim tinggal terus-menerus terlama.
Kota-kota yang dicirikan oleh kepadatan penduduk, fungsi [[Simbolisme|simbolis]], dan tata kota, telah ada selama ribuan tahun.<ref>Nick Compton, "What is the oldest city in the world?", ''The Guardian'', 16 February 2015.</ref> Dalam pandangan konvensional, peradaban dan kota sama-sama mengikuti perkembangan pertanian, yang memungkinkan produksi makanan surplus, dan dengan demikian pembagian kerja sosial.
=== Zaman kuno ===
[[File:Artgate Fondazione Cariplo - Betti Oreste - Veduta della Roma imperiale.jpg|thumb|Rekreasi [[Roma|Roma Kuno]] pada puncaknya. Kota ini adalah yang pertama di dunia yang mencapai satu juta penduduk.]]
[[Yerikho]] dan Çatalhöyük, berasal dari milenium kedelapan SM, adalah salah satu [[proto-kota]] paling awal yang diketahui para [[Arkeologi|arkeolog]].<ref name="Perlman16">[[Fredy Perlman]], ''[[Against His-Story, Against Leviathan]]'', Detroit: Black & Red, 1983; p. 16.</ref><ref>Southall (1998), p. 23.</ref> Namun, wilayah [[Mesopotamia]] dari pertengahan milenium keempat SM ([[Irak]] kuno) dianggap oleh beberapa orang sebagai kota sejati pertama, dengan namanya dikaitkan dengan periode [[Uruk]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art |date=Oct 2003 |title=Uruk: The First City |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/uruk/hd_uruk.htm |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=www.metmuseum.org |archive-date=1 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401115230/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/uruk/hd_uruk.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Uruk (article) |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/big-history-project/agriculture-civilization/first-cities-states/a/uruk |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=Khan Academy |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305140202/https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/big-history-project/agriculture-civilization/first-cities-states/a/uruk |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What Science Has Learned about the Rise of Urban Mesopotamia |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/uruk-period-mesopotamia-rise-of-sumer-171676 |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=ThoughtCo |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305135740/https://www.thoughtco.com/uruk-period-mesopotamia-rise-of-sumer-171676 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Pada milenium keempat dan ketiga SM, peradaban yang kompleks berkembang di lembah-lembah sungai [[Mesopotamia]], [[India]], [[Tiongkok]], dan [[Mesir]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ring|first1=Trudy|title=Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places|date=2014|page=204}}</ref><ref>Jhimli Mukherjee Pandeyl, "Varanasi is as old as Indus valley civilization, finds IIT-KGP study", ''Times of India'' 25 February 2016.</ref> Penggalian di daerah ini telah menemukan reruntuhan kota yang ditujukan untuk [[perdagangan]], politik, atau agama. Beberapa memiliki populasi yang besar dan padat, tetapi yang lain melakukan aktivitas perkotaan di ranah politik atau agama tanpa memiliki populasi terkait yang besar.
Di antara kota-kota [[Dunia Lama]] awal, [[Mohenjo-daro]] peradaban [[Sungai Indus|Lembah Indus]] yang saat ini [[Pakistan]], ada dari sekitar 2600 SM, adalah salah satu yang terbesar, dengan populasi 50.000 atau lebih dan sistem sanitasi yang canggih.<ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998) ''Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization''. [[Oxford University Press]], Karachi and New York.</ref> Kota-kota terencana [[Tiongkok]] dibangun menurut prinsip-prinsip sakral untuk bertindak sebagai [[Makrokosmos dan mikrokosmos|mikrokosmos]] surgawi.<ref>Southall (1998), pp. 38–43.</ref>
Kota-kota [[Mesir Kuno]] yang diketahui secara fisik oleh para arkeolog tidaklah luas.<ref name="Smith2002" /> Mereka termasuk (dikenal dengan nama Arab mereka) ''El-Lahun'', kota pekerja yang terkait dengan piramida [[Senusret II]], dan kota religius [[Amarna]] dibangun oleh [[Akhenaten]] dan [[Abandonemen]]. Situs-situs ini tampaknya direncanakan dengan cara yang sangat teratur dan bertingkat, dengan kisi-kisi kamar minimalis untuk para pekerja dan perumahan yang semakin rumit tersedia untuk kelas yang lebih tinggi.<ref>Moholy-Nagy (1968), pp. 158–161.</ref>
Di [[Mesopotamia]], peradaban [[Sumeria]], diikuti oleh [[Asyur]] dan [[Babilonia]], memunculkan banyak kota, diperintah oleh raja dan mengembangkan berbagai bahasa yang ditulis dalam tulisan paku.<ref>[[Robert McCormick Adams Jr.]], ''[https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/heartland_of_cities.pdf Heartland of Cities: Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113035705/https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/heartland_of_cities.pdf |date=13 November 2018 }}''; University of Chicago Press, 1981; {{ISBN|0-226-00544-5}}; p. 2. "Southern Mesopotamia was a land of cities. It became one precociously, before the end of the fourth millennium B.C. Urban traditions remained strong and virtually continuous through the vicissitudes of conquest, internal upheaval accompanied by widespread economic breakdown, and massive linguistic and population replacement. The symbolic and material content of civilization obviously changed, but its cultural ambience remained tied to cities."</ref> Kekaisaran perdagangan [[Fenisia]], berkembang sekitar pergantian milenium pertama SM, meliputi banyak kota yang terbentang dari [[Tirus]], Kidon, [[Jubail, Lebanon|Jubail]], [[Kartago]], dan [[Cádiz]].
Pada abad-abad berikutnya, negara-kota [[Yunani]] yang merdeka, khususnya [[Kota Athena|Athena]], mengembangkan ''[[polis]]'', sebuah asosiasi warga laki-laki pemilik tanah yang secara kolektif membentuk kota tersebut.<ref name="tws2Y21">{{Cite book | last = Pocock | first = J.G.A. | title = The Citizenship Debates | publisher = The University of Minnesota | series = Chapter 2 – The Ideal of Citizenship since Classical Times (originally published in ''Queen's Quarterly'' 99, no. 1) | year = 1998 | location = Minneapolis, MN | page = 31 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=i6U7CTuCJLYC&pg=PA31 | isbn = 978-0-8166-2880-3 | access-date = 11 November 2015 | archive-date = 9 June 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160609220358/https://books.google.com/books?id=i6U7CTuCJLYC&pg=PA31 | url-status = live }}</ref> [[Agora]], yang berarti "tempat berkumpul" atau "berkumpul", adalah pusat kehidupan atletik, artistik, spiritual, dan politik ''polis''.<ref name="InternationalDictionary">{{cite book |title = International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe | last=Ring, Salkin, Boda | first=Trudy, Robert, Sharon | publisher = Routledge|date = 1 January 1996 | page = 66 | isbn=978-1-884964-02-2}}</ref> [[Roma]] adalah kota pertama yang melampaui satu juta penduduk. Di bawah kekuasaan kekaisarannya, Roma mengubah dan mendirikan banyak kota (''coloniae''), dan bersama mereka membawa prinsip-prinsip arsitektur kota, desain, dan masyarakat.<ref>Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 41–42. "Rome created an elaborate urban system. Roman colonies were organized as a means of securing Roman territory. The first thing that Romans did when they conquered new territories was to establish cities."</ref>
Di [[Amerika Serikat|Amerika kuno]], tradisi urban awal berkembang di [[Andes]] dan [[Mesoamerika]]. Di Andes, pusat kota pertama berkembang di [[peradaban Norte Chico]], budaya Chavin dan Moche, diikuti oleh kota-kota besar di Huari, [[Kebudayaan Chimú|Chimu]] dan kebudayaan [[Inca Kola|Inca]]. [[Peradaban Norte Chico]] mencakup sebanyak 30 pusat populasi utama di tempat yang sekarang menjadi wilayah [[Norte Chico, Chili|Norte Chico]] di pesisir utara-tengah [[Peru]]. Ini adalah peradaban tertua yang diketahui di Amerika, berkembang antara abad ke-30 dan ke-18 SM.<ref name="Shady1997">{{cite book |last=Shady Solís |first=Ruth Martha |author-link=Ruth Shady |title=La ciudad sagrada de Caral-Supe en los albores de la civilización en el Perú |url=http://sisbib.unmsm.edu.pe/Bibvirtual/Libros/Arqueologia/ciudad_sagrada/caratula.htm |access-date=3 March 2007 |year=1997 |publisher=UNMSM, Fondo Editorial |location=Lima |language=es |archive-date=7 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207051615/http://sisbib.unmsm.edu.pe/Bibvirtual/libros/Arqueologia/ciudad_sagrada/caratula.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
Mesoamerika melihat kebangkitan urbanisme awal di beberapa wilayah budaya, dimulai dengan [[Olmek]] dan menyebar ke [[Maya Praklasik]], [[Suku Zapotek|Zapotek]] dari [[Oaxaca (negara bagian)|Oaxaca]], dan [[Teotihuacan]] di [[Meksiko]] tengah. Budaya selanjutnya seperti peradaban [[Aztek]], Andean, Maya, [[Mississippian (geologi)|Mississippian]], dan [[Pueblo]] menggunakan tradisi urban awal ini. Banyak dari kota kuno mereka terus dihuni, termasuk kota [[metropolitan]] besar seperti [[Kota Meksiko|Mexico City]], di lokasi yang sama [[Tenochtitlán|Tenochtitlan]]; sementara [[Taos Pueblo]] kuno yang terus dihuni berada di dekat daerah perkotaan modern di [[New Mexico]], seperti Acoma Pueblo dekat daerah metropolitan [[Albuquerque, New Mexico|Albuquerque]] dan [[Taos Pueblo]] di dekat [[Taos, New Mexico|Taos]]; sementara yang lain seperti [[Lima, Peru|Lima]] terletak di dekat situs [[Peru]] kuno seperti [[Pachacamac]].
Jenné-Jeno, terletak di [[Mali]] saat ini dan berasal dari abad ketiga SM, tidak memiliki arsitektur monumental dan kelas sosial elit yang khas—namun demikian memiliki produksi khusus dan hubungan dengan pedalaman.<ref>McIntosh, Roderic J., McIntosh, Susan Keech. "Early Urban Configurations on the Middle Niger: Clustered Cities and Landscapes of Power," Chapter 5.</ref> Kontak perdagangan pra-[[Bangsa Arab|Arab]] mungkin ada antara Jenné-Jeno dan [[Afrika Utara]].<ref name="Magnavita">{{cite journal|last=Magnavita|first=Sonja|title=Initial Encounters: Seeking traces of ancient trade connections between West Africa and the wider world|url=http://afriques.revues.org/1145?lang=en|journal=Afriques|issue=4|year=2013|access-date=13 December 2013|doi=10.4000/afriques.1145|doi-access=free|archive-date=15 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215165228/http://afriques.revues.org/1145?lang=en|url-status=live}}</ref> Pusat perkotaan awal lainnya di [[Afrika Sub-Sahara|Afrika sub-Sahara]], bertanggal sekitar 500 M, termasuk Awdaghust, [[Kumbi Saleh|Kumbi-Saleh]] ibu kota kuno [[Ghana]], dan Maranda sebuah pusat yang terletak di jalur perdagangan antara [[Mesir]] dan Gao.<ref>''[http://markuswiener.com/book_reviews.html?products_id=93&products_name=History%20of%20African%20Cities%20South%20of%20the%20Sahara History of African Cities South of the Sahara] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124191535/http://markuswiener.com/book_reviews.html?products_id=93&products_name=History%20of%20African%20Cities%20South%20of%20the%20Sahara |date=24 January 2008 }}'' By Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch. 2005. {{ISBN|1-55876-303-1}}</ref>
===Middle Ages===
[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|[[Vyborg]] in [[Leningrad Oblast]], [[Russia]] has existed since the 13th century]]
[[File:Monumentale torens in de binnenstad.jpg|thumb|Old town of [[Utrecht]], [[Netherlands]]]]
[[File:Holy Roman Empire 1648 Imperial cities.png|thumb|Imperial Free Cities in the Holy Roman Empire 1648]]
[[File:Haarlem-City-Map-1550.jpg|thumb|This map of [[Haarlem]], the Netherlands, created around 1550, shows the city completely surrounded by a [[defensive wall|city wall]] and [[moat|defensive canal]], with its square shape inspired by [[Jerusalem]].]]
In the [[Fall of the Roman Empire|remnants of the Roman Empire]], [[Late Antiquity#Cities|cities of late antiquity]] gained independence but soon lost population and importance. The locus of power in the West shifted to [[Constantinople]] and to the [[Early Muslim conquests|ascendant Islamic civilization]] with its major cities [[Baghdad]], [[Cairo]], and [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]].<ref>Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 43. "Capitals like Córdoba and Cairo had populations of about 500,000; Baghdad probably had a population of more than 1 million. This urban heritage would continue despite the conquests of the Seljuk Turks and the later Crusades. China, the longest standing civilization, was in the midst of a golden age as the Tang dynasty gave way—after a short period of fragmentation—to the Song dynasty. This dynasty ruled two of the most impressive cities on the planet, Xian and Hangzhou. / In contrast, poor Western Europe had not recovered from the sacking of Rome and the collapse of the western half of the Roman Empire. For more than five centuries a steady process of deurbanization—whereby the population living in cities and the number of cities declined precipitously—had converted a prosperous landscape into a scary wilderness, overrun with bandits, warlords, and rude settlements."</ref> From the 9th through the end of the 12th century, [[Constantinople]], capital of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population approaching 1 million.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cameron|first=Averil|title=The Byzantines|page=47|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59c6PSa5JCAC|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4051-9833-2|access-date=24 January 2015|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523031336/https://books.google.com/books?id=59c6PSa5JCAC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Laiou|first=Angeliki E.|title=The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 1)|pages=130–131|year=2002|location=Washington, DC|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|editor=Angeliki E. Laiou|chapter=Writing the Economic History of Byzantium|chapter-url=http://www.doaks.org/publications/doaks_online_publications/EHB.html|access-date=6 June 2012|archive-date=18 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218231151/http://www.doaks.org/publications/doaks_online_publications/EHB.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Ottoman Empire]] gradually gained [[List of cities conquered by the Ottoman Empire|control over many cities]] in the Mediterranean area, including [[Fall of Constantinople|Constantinople in 1453]].
In the [[Holy Roman Empire]], beginning in the 12th century, [[free imperial city|free imperial cities]] such as [[Nuremberg]], [[Strasbourg]], [[Frankfurt]], [[Basel]], [[Zurich]], [[Nijmegen]] became a privileged elite among towns having won self-governance from their local lord or having been granted self-governanace by the emperor and being placed under his immediate protection. By 1480, these cities, as far as still part of the empire, became part of the [[Imperial Estates]] governing the empire with the emperor through the [[Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Diet]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/free-and-imperial-cities|title=Free and Imperial Cities – Dictionary definition of Free and Imperial Cities|website=www.encyclopedia.com|access-date=29 May 2018|archive-date=29 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529203824/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/free-and-imperial-cities|url-status=live}}</ref>
By the 13th and 14th centuries, some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. In Italy [[medieval commune]]s developed into [[Italian city-states|city-states]] including the [[Republic of Venice]] and the [[Republic of Genoa]]. In Northern Europe, cities including [[Lübeck]] and [[Bruges]] formed the [[Hanseatic League]] for collective defense and commerce. Their power was later [[Dutch–Hanseatic War|challenged]] and eclipsed by the [[Burgundian Netherlands|Dutch]] commercial [[History of urban centers in the Low Countries|cities]] of [[Ghent]], [[Ypres]], and [[Amsterdam]].<ref>Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 47–50.</ref> Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]], which enjoyed a considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan.
In the first millennium AD, the [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] capital of [[Angkor]] in [[Cambodia]] grew into the most extensive [[Pre-industrial society|preindustrial settlement]] in the world by area,<ref name="Evans PNAS">Evans ''et al.'', [http://www.pnas.org/content/104/36/14277 A comprehensive archaeological map of the world's largest preindustrial settlement complex at Angkor, Cambodia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422171845/http://www.pnas.org/content/104/36/14277 |date=22 April 2017 }}, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the US, 23 August 2007.</ref><ref name="BBC News 2007">"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6945574.stm Map reveals ancient urban sprawl] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028014349/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6945574.stm |date=28 October 2007 }}", ''BBC News'', 14 August 2007.</ref> covering over 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> and possibly supporting up to one million people.<ref name="Evans PNAS" /><ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/metropolis-angkor-the-worlds-first-megacity-461623.html Metropolis: Angkor, the world's first mega-city] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919133524/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/metropolis-angkor-the-worlds-first-megacity-461623.html |date=19 September 2011 }}, The Independent, 15 August 2007</ref>
===Early modern===
In the West, nation-states became the dominant unit of political organization following the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in the seventeenth century.<ref>Curtis (2016), pp. 5–6. "In the modern international system, cities were subjugated and internalized by the state, and, with industrialization, became the great growth engines of national economies."</ref><ref name="Blomley2013" /> Western Europe's larger capitals (London and Paris) benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] trade. However, most towns remained small.
During the Spanish colonization of the Americas the old Roman city concept was extensively used. Cities were founded in the middle of the newly conquered territories, and were bound to several laws regarding administration, finances and urbanism.
===Industrial age===
[[File:Tampere 1837.jpg|thumb|The industrial-based city of [[Tampere]] on the shores of the [[Tammerkoski]] rapids in 1837.]]
The [[Industrial Revolution|growth of modern industry]] from the late 18th century onward led to massive [[urbanization]] and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. [[File:Old Gyumri 03.PNG|thumb|left|[[Diorama]] of old [[Gyumri]], [[Armenia]] with the [[Holy Saviour's Church, Gyumri|Holy Saviour's Church]] (1859–1873)]] [[File:Szent Bertalan utca a Kossuth Lajos utca felé nézve. Fortepan 721.jpg|thumb|Small city [[Gyöngyös]] in Hungary in 1938.]] England led the way as [[London]] became the capital of a [[British empire|world empire]] and cities across the country grew in locations strategic for [[manufacturing]].<ref>Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 53–54. "England was clearly at the center of these changes. London became the first truly global city by placing itself within the new global economy. English colonialism in North America, the Caribbean, South Asia, and later Africa and China helped to further fatten the wallets of many of its merchants. These colonies would later provide many of the raw materials for industrial production. England's hinterland was no longer confined to a portion of the world; it effectively became a global hinterland."</ref> In the United States from 1860 to 1910, the [[History of rail transport|introduction of railroads]] reduced transportation costs, and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, fueling migration from rural to city areas.
Industrialized cities became deadly places to live, due to health problems resulting from [[overcrowding]], [[occupational hazard]]s of industry, contaminated water and air, [[History of water supply and sanitation#Modern age|poor sanitation]], and communicable diseases such as [[typhoid]] and [[cholera]]. [[Factories]] and [[slum]]s emerged as regular features of the urban landscape.<ref>Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 54–55.</ref>
===Post-industrial age===
In the second half of the twentieth century, [[deindustrialization]] (or "[[economic restructuring]]") in the West led to [[poverty]], [[homelessness]], and [[urban decay]] in formerly prosperous cities. America's "Steel Belt" became a "[[Rust Belt]]" and cities such as [[Decline of Detroit|Detroit]], Michigan, and [[Gary, Indiana]] began to [[Shrinking cities|shrink]], contrary to the global trend of massive urban expansion.<ref>Steven High, ''[https://archive.org/details/industrialsunset0000high/page/5 Industrial Sunset: The Making of North America's Rust Belt, 1969–1984]''; University of Toronto Press, 2003; {{ISBN|0-8020-8528-8}}. "It is now clear that the deindustrialization thesis is part myth and part fact. Robert Z. Lawrence, for example, uses aggregate economic data to show that manufacturing employment in the United States did not decline but actually increased from 16.8 million in 1960, to 20.1 million in 1973, and 20.3 million in 1980. However, manufacturing employment was in relative decline. Barry Bluestone noted that manufacturing represented a decreasing proportion of the U.S. labour force, from 26.2 per cent in 1973 to 22.1 per cent in 1980. Studies in Canada have likewise shown that manufacturing employment was only in relative decline during these years. Yet mills and factories did close, and towns and cities lost their industries. John Cumbler submitted that 'depressions do not manifest themselves only at moments of national economic collapse' such as in the 1930s, but 'also recur in scattered sites across the nation in regions, in industries, and in communities.'"</ref> Such cities have shifted with varying success into the [[service economy]] and [[public-private partnerships]], with concomitant [[gentrification]], uneven [[urban renewal|revitalization efforts]], and selective cultural development.<ref name="Kaplan2004p164">Kaplan (2004), pp. 160–165. "Entrepreneurial leadership became manifest through growth coalitions made up of builders, realtors, developers, the media, government actors such as mayors, and dominant corporations. For example, in St. Louis, Anheuser-Busch, Monsanto, and Ralston Purina played prominent roles. The leadership involved cooperation between public and private interests. The results were efforts at downtown revitalization; inner-city gentrification; the transformation of the CBD to advanced service employment; entertainment, museums, and cultural venues; the construction of sports stadiums and sport complexes; and waterfront development."</ref> Under the [[Great Leap Forward]] and subsequent [[Five-year plans of China|five-year plans]] continuing today, [[China]] has undergone concomitant [[urbanization in China|urbanization]] and [[Chinese industrialization|industrialization]] and to become the world's leading [[manufacturing|manufacturer]].<ref>James Xiaohe Zhang, "Rapid urbanization in China and its impact on the world economy"; 16th Annual Conference on Global Economic Analysis, "New Challenges for Global Trade in a Rapidly Changing World", Shanhai Institute of Foreign Trade, 12–14 June 2013.</ref><ref>Ian Johnson, "[https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/16/world/asia/chinas-great-uprooting-moving-250-million-into-cities.html China's Great Uprooting: Moving 250 Million Into Cities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829234450/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/16/world/asia/chinas-great-uprooting-moving-250-million-into-cities.html |date=29 August 2017 }}"; ''New York Times'', 15 June 2013.</ref>
Amidst these economic changes, [[high technology]] and instantaneous [[telecommunication]] enable select cities to become centers of the [[knowledge economy]].<ref>Castells, M. (ed) (2004). ''The network society: a cross-cultural perspective''. London: Edward Elgar. (ebook)</ref><ref>Flew, T. (2008). ''New media: an introduction'', 3rd edn, South Melbourne: Oxford University Press</ref><ref>Harford, T. (2008) ''The Logic of Life''. London: Little, Brown.</ref> A new [[smart city]] paradigm, supported by institutions such as the [[RAND Corporation]] and [[IBM]], is bringing computerized [[Surveillance issues in smart cities|surveillance]], data analysis, and [[E-governance|governance]] to bear on cities and city-dwellers.<ref>Taylor Shelton, Matthew Zook, & Alan Wiig, "[https://academic.oup.com/cjres/article/doi/10.1093/cjres/rsu026/304403/The-actually-existing-smart-city The 'actually existing smart city'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170603010442/https://academic.oup.com/cjres/article/doi/10.1093/cjres/rsu026/304403/The-actually-existing-smart-city |date=3 June 2017 }}", ''Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy, and Society'' 8, 2015; {{doi|10.1093/cjres/rsu026}}.</ref> Some companies are building brand new [[land use planning|masterplanned]] cities from scratch on [[greenfield land|greenfield]] sites.
== Referensi ==
|
