Nootropika: Perbedaan antara revisi

'''Nootropika''' ({{IPAc-en|pron|n|oʊ|.|ə|ˈ|t|r|ɒ|p|ᵻ|k|s}} {{respell|noh-ə|TROP|iks}}) adalah obat-obatan, suplemen atau substansi lainnya yang dapat memperbaiki [[fungsi kognitif]], terutama [[fungsi eksekutif]], ingatan, kreativitas atau [[motivasi]] pada individu-individu yang sehat.<ref name="Smart drugs">{{cite journal | vauthors = Frati P, Kyriakou C, Del Rio A, Marinelli E, Vergallo GM, Zaami S, Busardò FP | title = Smart drugs and synthetic androgens for cognitive and physical enhancement: revolving doors of cosmetic neurology | journal = Curr Neuropharmacol | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–11 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 26074739 | pmc = 4462043 | doi = 10.2174/1570159X13666141210221750 | quote = }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Lanni C, Lenzken SC, Pascale A, etal |title=Cognition enhancers between treating and doping the mind |journal=Pharmacol. Res. |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=196–213 |date=March 2008 |pmid=18353672 |doi=10.1016/j.phrs.2008.02.004 |url=}}</ref> Penggunaan obat yang memperkuat fungsi [[kognisi]] oleh individu-individu yang sehat merupakan salah satu topik yang paling diperdebatkan oleh ahli [[neurosains]], [[psikiatri]] dan [[kedokteran]] yang berkaitan dengan beberapa isu, seperti etika, efek samping dan penyalahgunaan obat preskripsi untuk kegunaan nonmedis.<ref name="Smart drugs" /><ref name="Cognition-enhancing drug culture">{{cite journal | vauthors = Albertson TE, Chenoweth JA, Colby DK, Sutter ME | title = The Changing Drug Culture: Use and Misuse of Cognition-Enhancing Drugs | journal = FP Essent | volume = 441 | issue = | pages = 25–9 | year = 2016 | pmid = 26881770 | doi = | url = }}</ref><ref name="pmid19060880">{{cite journal | vauthors = Greely H, Sahakian B, Harris J, Kessler RC, Gazzaniga M, Campbell P, Farah MJ | title = Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy | journal = Nature | volume = 456 | issue = 7223 | pages = 702–5 | year = 2008 | pmid = 19060880 | doi = 10.1038/456702a | url = }}</ref> Meskipun begitu, penjualan suplemen nootropika melebihi {{currency|1|US}} miliar pada tahun 2015 dan permintaan terus menguat.<ref name="BMJ nootropics">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chinthapalli K | title = The billion dollar business of being smart | journal = BMJ | volume = 351 | issue = | pages = h4829 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26370589 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.h4829 | quote = International sales of non-prescription supplements for cognition also exceed $1bn (£650 000; €880 000) a year and are rapidly growing. Ginkgo biloba, vitamins, and even caffeine are common ingredients. Some add piracetam (related to the epilepsy drug levetiracetam), jellyfish proteins, or even “edible pure 23.5 carat gold flakes.”}}</ref>

Saat ini hanya sedikit obat yang diketahui dapat memperkuat aspek kognitif. Obat-obatan nootropika lainnya masih dikembangkan.<ref name=NatureProfessor>{{Cite journal|author1=Sahakian B|author1-link=Barbara Sahakian|author2=Morein-Zamir S |title=Professor's little helper |journal=Nature |volume=450 |issue=7173 |pages=1157–9 |date=December 2007 |pmid=18097378 |doi=10.1038/4501157a |url=|bibcode = 2007Natur.450.1157S }}</ref> Kategori obat yang paling sering digunakan adalah [[stimulan]] seperti [[kafeina]].<ref name="Nature2008">{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v456/n7223/full/456702a.html |title=Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy |work=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=December 10, 2008 |publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group]] |issn=1476-4687 |oclc=01586310 |bibcode = 2008Natur.456..702G |accessdate=March 25, 2014 |doi=10.1038/456702a |pages=702–705 |volume=456 |issue=7223 |subscription=yes |first1=Henry |last1=Greely |first2=Barbara |last2=Sahakian |first3=John |last3=Harris |first4=Ronald C. |last4=Kessler |first5=Michael |last5=Gazzaniga |first6=Philip |last6=Campbell |first7=Martha J. |last7=Farah |pmid=19060880}}</ref> Mahasiswa-mahasiswa telah menggunakan substansi nootropika untuk meningkatkan produktivitas, terutama pada mereka yang masuk ke perguruan tinggi yang sangat kompetitif.<ref name=StudentSurvey>{{cite journal|last=McCabe|first=Sean Esteban|author2=Knight, John R. |author3=Teter, Christian J. |author4= Wechsler, Henry |title=Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: prevalence and correlates from a national survey|journal=Addiction|date=January 1, 2005|volume=100|issue=1|pages=96–106|doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.00944.x|pmid=15598197}}</ref> Menurut survei, 0,7 hingga 4,5% mahasiswa [[Jerman]] telah menggunakan substansi nootropika dalam hidup mereka.<ref name="doi10.1371/journal.pone.0068821">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0068821| title = The Rationale for Consuming Cognitive Enhancement Drugs in University Students and Teachers| journal = PLoS ONE| volume = 8| issue = 7| pages = e68821| year = 2013| last1 = Sattler | first1 = S. | last2 = Sauer | first2 = C. | last3 = Mehlkop | first3 = G. | last4 = Graeff | first4 = P. | pmid=23874778 | pmc=3714277}}</ref><ref name="C4WDefault-10.3109/10826084.2012.751426">{{cite journal |url=http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/10826084.2012.751426 |title=Cognitive Test Anxiety and Cognitive Enhancement: The Influence of Students’ Worries on Their Use of Performance-Enhancing Drugs |work=Substance Use & Misuse |volume = 48 |number = 3 |pages=220–232 |date=February 25, 2013 |publisher=Informa Healthcare New York |accessdate=April 5, 2014 |doi=10.3109/10826084.2012.751426 |first1=Sebastian |last1=Sattler |first2=Constantin |last2=Wiegel}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Bossaer |first1=John |title=The Use and Misuse of Prescription Stimulants as "Cognitive Enhancers" by Students at One Academic Health Sciences Center |url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/807645 |publisher=Academic Medicine |accessdate=October 6, 2014 |quote=Overall, 11.3% of responders admitted to misusing prescription stimulants. There was more misuse by respiratory therapy students, although this was not statistically significant (10.9% medicine, 9.7% pharmacy, 26.3% respiratory therapy; P = .087). Reasons for prescription stimulant misuse included to enhance alertness/energy (65.9%), to improve academic performance (56.7%), to experiment (18.2%), and to use recreationally/get high (4.5%). |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150410125100/http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/807645 |archivedate=April 10, 2015 }}</ref> Stimulan seperti [[dimetilamilamin]] dan [[metilfenidat]] telah digunakan di kampus dan oleh kelompok yang lebih muda.<ref name=NatureProfessor/> Berdasarkan penelitian penggunaan stimulan secara ilegal, 5 hingga 35% siswa ''college'' telah menggunakan stimulan-stimulan untuk penyakit [[ADHD]] dengan tujuan untuk meningkatkan performa akademis.<ref name="pmid16999660">{{cite journal |vauthors=Teter CJ, McCabe SE, LaGrange K, Cranford JA, Boyd CJ | title = Illicit use of specific prescription stimulants among college students: prevalence, motives, and routes of administration | journal = Pharmacotherapy | volume = 26 | issue = 10 | pages = 1501–1510 |date=October 2006 | pmid = 16999660 | pmc = 1794223 | doi = 10.1592/phco.26.10.1501 }}</ref><ref name="Diversion prevalence 1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Weyandt LL, Oster DR, Marraccini ME, Gudmundsdottir BG, Munro BA, Zavras BM, Kuhar B | title = Pharmacological interventions for adolescents and adults with ADHD: stimulant and nonstimulant medications and misuse of prescription stimulants | journal = Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag. | volume = 7 | issue = | pages = 223–249 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25228824 | pmc = 4164338 | doi = 10.2147/PRBM.S47013 | quote = misuse of prescription stimulants has become a serious problem on college campuses across the US and has been recently documented in other countries as well.&nbsp;... Indeed, large numbers of students claim to have engaged in the nonmedical use of prescription stimulants, which is reflected in lifetime prevalence rates of prescription stimulant misuse ranging from 5% to nearly 34% of students.}}</ref><ref name="Diversion prevalence 2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Clemow DB, Walker DJ | title = The potential for misuse and abuse of medications in ADHD: a review | journal = Postgrad. Med. | volume = 126 | issue = 5 | pages = 64–81 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25295651 | doi = 10.3810/pgm.2014.09.2801 | quote = Overall, the data suggest that ADHD medication misuse and diversion are common health care problems for stimulant medications, with the prevalence believed to be approximately 5% to 10% of high school students and 5% to 35% of college students, depending on the study.}}</ref>