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Baris 271:
Karena besi menjadi lebih murah dan lebih banyak, besi juga menjadi bahan struktural utama menyusul pembangunan inovatif [[The Iron Bridge|jembatan besi pertama]] pada tahun 1778.
===Tabel kualitas komparatif besi tuang===
[[Besi tuang]] atau besi cor ([[bahasa Inggris]]: ''cast iron'') adalah [[Logam paduan|paduan]] [[besi]]-[[karbon]] dengan kandungan karbon lebih dari 2%.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Campbell|first1=F.C.|title=Elements of Metallurgy and Engineering Alloys|url=https://archive.org/details/elementsmetallur00fcam|date=2008|publisher=ASM International|location=Materials Park, Ohio|isbn=978-0-87170-867-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/elementsmetallur00fcam/page/n453 453]}}</ref> Paduan besi dengan kandungan karbon kurang dari 2% disebut sebagai [[baja]]. Unsur paduan utama yang membentuk karakter besi tuang adalah karbon (C) antara 3-3,5% dan [[silikon]] (Si) antara 1,8-2,4%. Perbedaan kadar C dan Si menyebabkan [[titik lebur]] besi tuang lebih rendah dari baja, yakni sekitar 1.150 sampai 1.200 °C. Unsur paduan yang terkandung didalamnya mempengaruhi warna patahannya; besi tuang putih mengandung unsur karbida sedangkan besi tuang kelabu mengandung serpihan grafit.
{|class="wikitable"
|+Kualitas komparatif besi tuang<ref>Lyons, William C. and Plisga, Gary J. (eds.) ''Standard Handbook of Petroleum & Natural Gas Engineering'', Elsevier, 2006</ref>
|-
!Nama
!Komposisi nominal [% berat]
!Bentuk dan kondisi
!Kekuatan hasil <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[pounds per square inch|ksi]] (0.2% offset)]
!Kekuatan tarik [ksi]
!Perpanjangan [%]
!Kekerasan <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Brinell scale]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
!Penggunaan
|-
!Besi cor kelabu ([[ASTM International|ASTM]] A48)
|C 3.4, Si 1.8, [[manganese|Mn]] 0.5
|Cast
|—
|50
|0.5
|260
|Blok silinder mesin, roda gila, kotak roda gigi, alas alat mesin
|-
!Besi cor putih
|C 3.4, Si 0.7, Mn 0.6
|Cast (as cast)
|—
|25
|0
|450
|Permukaan bantalan bearing
|-
!Besi lunak (ASTM A47)
|C 2.5, Si 1.0, Mn 0.55
|Cast (annealed)
|33
|52
|12
|130
|Bantalan bearing gandar, roda track, poros engkol otomotif
|-
!Besi ulet atau nodular
|C 3.4, P 0.1, Mn 0.4, [[nickel|Ni]] 1.0, Mg 0.06
|Cast
|53
|70
|18
|170
|Roda gigi, poros bubungan, poros engkol
|-
!Besi ulet atau nodular (ASTM A339)
|—
|Cast (quench tempered)
|108
|135
|5
|310
|—
|-
!Ni-keras tipe 2
|C 2.7, Si 0.6, Mn 0.5, Ni 4.5, Cr 2.0
|Sand-cast
|—
|55
|—
|550
|Aplikasi kekuatan tinggi
|-
!Ni-resist tipe 2
|C 3.0, Si 2.0, Mn 1.0, Ni 20.0, Cr 2.5
|Cast
|—
|27
|2
|140
|Ketahanan terhadap panas dan korosi
|}
=== Baja ===
{{See also|Pembuatan baja}}
Baris 276 ⟶ 355:
Metode produksi baru adalah melalui [[karburasi]] besi batangan dalam [[proses sementasi]] ditemukan pada abad ke-17. Pada Revolusi Industri, metode baru memproduksi besi batangan tanpa batu bara ditemukan dan hal ini kemudian digunakan untuk memproduksi baja. Pada akhir 1850an, [[Henry Bessemer]] menciptakan proses pembuatan baja baru, melibatkan penghembusan udara melalui lelehan besi kasar untuk memproduksi baja lunak. Hal ini membuat baja jauh lebih ekonomis, oleh karena itu besi tempa tidak lagi diproduksi.<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fUmTX8yKU4gC&pg=PA190|pages = 190–191|title = Encyclopedia of the Elements: Technical Data - History - Processing - Applications|isbn = 9783527612345|author1 = Enghag|first1 = Per|date = 8 January 2008}}</ref>
;SAE steel grades
Sistem nilai baja steel grades SAE adalah sistem penomoran paduan standar (SAE J1086 - Numbering Metals and Alloys) untuk nilai baja yang dikelola oleh SAE International.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Stainless steel designations{{sfn|Oberg|2004|pp=448–49}}
|-
! colspan=2 | Designation
! colspan=9 | Composition by weight (%)
|-
! SAE
! UNS
! Cr !! Ni !! C !! Mn !! Si !! P !! S !! N
! Other
|-
! colspan="11" | Austenitic
|-
| 201 || S20100 || 16–18 || 3.5–5.5 || 0.15 || 5.5–7.5 || 0.75 || 0.06 || 0.03 || 0.25 || -
|-
| 202 || S20200 || 17–19 || 4–6 || 0.15 || 7.5–10.0 || 0.75 || 0.06 || 0.03 || 0.25 || -
|-
| 205 || S20500 || 16.5–18 || 1–1.75 || 0.12–0.25 || 14–15.5 || 0.75 || 0.06 || 0.03 || 0.32–0.40 || -
|-
| 254<ref name="ni">{{cite web |url=http://www.nickelinstitute.org/index.cfm/ci_id/11021.htm |title=What is Stainless Steel? |publisher=Nickel Institute |access-date=2007-08-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051231194101/http://www.nickelinstitute.org/index.cfm/ci_id/11021.htm |archive-date=2005-12-31 }}</ref> || S31254 || 20 || 18 || 0.02 max. || - || - || - || - || 0.20 || 6 Mo; 0.75 Cu; "Super austenitic"; All values nominal
|-
| 301 || S30100 || 16–18 || 6–8 || 0.15 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 302 || S30200 || 17–19 || 8–10 || 0.15 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.03 || 0.1 || -
|-
| 302B || S30215 || 17–19 || 8–10 || 0.15 || 2 || 2.0–3.0 || 0.045 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 303 || S30300 || 17–19 || 8–10 || 0.15 || 2 || 1 || 0.2 || 0.15 min. || - || Mo 0.60 (optional)
|-
| 303Se || S30323 || 17–19 || 8–10 || 0.15 || 2 || 1 || 0.2 || 0.06 || - || 0.15 Se min.
|-
| 304 || S30400 || 18–20 || 8–10.50 || 0.08 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.03 || 0.1 || -
|-
| 304L || S30403 || 18–20 || 8–12 || 0.03 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.03 || 0.1 || -
|-
| 304Cu || S30430 || 17–19 || 8–10 || 0.08 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.03 || - || 3–4 Cu
|-
| 304N || S30451 || 18–20 || 8–10.50 || 0.08 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.03 || 0.10–0.16 || -
|-
| 305 || S30500 || 17–19 || 10.50–13 || 0.12 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 308 || S30800 || 19–21 || 10–12 || 0.08 || 2 || 1 || 0.045 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 309 || S30900 || 22–24 || 12–15 || 0.2 || 2 || 1 || 0.045 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 309S || S30908 || 22–24 || 12–15 || 0.08 || 2 || 1 || 0.045 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| [[SAE 310S stainless steel|310]] || S31000 || 24–26 || 19–22 || 0.25 || 2 || 1.5 || 0.045 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| [[SAE 310S stainless steel|310S]] || S31008 || 24–26 || 19–22 || 0.08 || 2 || 1.5 || 0.045 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 314 || S31400 || 23–26 || 19–22 || 0.25 || 2 || 1.5–3.0 || 0.045 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 316 || S31600 || 16–18 || 10–14 || 0.08 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.03 || 0.10 || 2.0–3.0 Mo
|-
| 316L || S31603 || 16–18 || 10–14 || 0.03 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.03 || 0.10 || 2.0–3.0 Mo
|-
| 316F || S31620 || 16–18 || 10–14 || 0.08 || 2 || 1 || 0.2 || 0.10 min. || - || 1.75–2.50 Mo
|-
| 316N || S31651 || 16–18 || 10–14 || 0.08 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.03 || 0.10–0.16 || 2.0–3.0 Mo
|-
| 317 || S31700 || 18–20 || 11–15 || 0.08 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.03 || 0.10 max. || 3.0–4.0 Mo
|-
| 317L || S31703 || 18–20 || 11–15 || 0.03 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.03 || 0.10 max. || 3.0–4.0 Mo
|-
| 321 || S32100 || 17–19 || 9–12 || 0.08 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.03 || 0.10 max. || Ti 5(C+N) min., 0.70 max.
|-
| 329 || S32900 || 23–28 || 2.5–5 || 0.08 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || 1–2 Mo
|-
| 330 || N08330 || 17–20 || 34–37 || 0.08 || 2 || 0.75–1.50 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 347 || S34700 || 17–19 || 9–13 || 0.08 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.030 || - || Nb + Ta, 10 × C min., 1 max.
|-
| 348 || S34800 || 17–19 || 9–13 || 0.08 || 2 || 0.75 || 0.045 || 0.030 || - || Nb + Ta, 10 × C min., 1 max., but 0.10 Ta max.; 0.20 Ca
|-
| 384 || S38400 || 15–17 || 17–19 || 0.08 || 2 || 1 || 0.045 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
! colspan=2 | Designation
! colspan=9 | Composition by weight (%)
|-
! SAE
! UNS
! Cr !! Ni !! C !! Mn !! Si !! P !! S !! N
! Other
|-
! colspan="11" | Ferritic
|-
| 405 || S40500 || 11.5–14.5 || - || 0.08 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || 0.1–0.3 Al, 0.60 max.
|-
| 409 || S40900 || 10.5–11.75 || 0.05 || 0.08 || 1 || 1 || 0.045 || 0.03 || - || Ti 6 × (C + N) <ref>{{cite book|title=ASTM A SA-240/SA-540M|chapter=section 2, part A:Standard specification for chromium and chromium-nickel stainless steel plate, sheet, and strip for pressure vessels and for general applications|year=2007|page=385}}</ref>
|-
| 429 || S42900 || 14–16 || 0.75 || 0.12 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 430 || S43000 || 16–18 || 0.75 || 0.12 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 430F || S43020 || 16–18 || - || 0.12 || 1.25 || 1 || 0.06 || 0.15 min. || - || 0.60 Mo (optional)
|-
| 430FSe || S43023 || 16–18 || - || 0.12 || 1.25 || 1 || 0.06 || 0.06 || - || 0.15 Se min.
|-
| 434 || S43400 || 16–18 || - || 0.12 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || 0.75–1.25 Mo
|-
| 436 || S43600 || 16–18 || - || 0.12 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || 0.75–1.25 Mo; Nb+Ta 5 × C min., 0.70 max.
|-
| 442 || S44200 || 18–23 || - || 0.2 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 446 || S44600 || 23–27 || 0.25 || 0.2 || 1.5 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
! colspan=2 | Designation
! colspan=9 | Composition by weight (%)
|-
! SAE
! UNS
! Cr !! Ni !! C !! Mn !! Si !! P !! S !! N
! Other
|-
! colspan="11" | Martensitic
|-
| 403 || S40300 || 11.5–13.0 || 0.60 || 0.15 || 1 || 0.5 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 410 || S41000 || 11.5–13.5 || 0.75 || 0.15 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 414 || S41400 || 11.5–13.5 || 1.25–2.50 || 0.15 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 416 || S41600 || 12–14 || - || 0.15 || 1.25 || 1 || 0.06 || 0.15 min. || - || 0.060 Mo (optional)
|-
| 416Se || S41623 || 12–14 || - || 0.15 || 1.25 || 1 || 0.06 || 0.06 || - || 0.15 Se min.
|-
| 420 || S42000 || 12–14 || - || 0.15 min. || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 420F || S42020 || 12–14 || - || 0.15 min. || 1.25 || 1 || 0.06 || 0.15 min. || - || 0.60 Mo max. (optional)
|-
| 422 || S42200 || 11.0–12.5 || 0.50–1.0 || 0.20–0.25 || 0.5–1.0 || 0.5 || 0.025 || 0.025 || - || 0.90–1.25 Mo; 0.20–0.30 V; 0.90–1.25 W
|-
| 431 || S41623 || 15–17 || 1.25–2.50 || 0.2 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || -
|-
| 440A || S44002 || 16–18 || - || 0.60–0.75 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || 0.75 Mo
|-
| 440B || S44003 || 16–18 || - || 0.75–0.95 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || 0.75 Mo
|-
| [[440C]] || S44004 || 16–18 || - || 0.95–1.20 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || 0.75 Mo
|-
! colspan=2 | Designation
! colspan=9 | Composition by weight (%)
|-
! SAE
! UNS
! Cr !! Ni !! C !! Mn !! Si !! P !! S !! N
! Other
|-
! colspan="11" | Heat resisting
|-
| 501 || S50100 || 4–6 || - || 0.10 min. || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || 0.40–0.65 Mo
|-
| 502 || S50200 || 4–6 || - || 0.1 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || 0.40–0.65 Mo
|-
! colspan="11"|Martensitic precipitation hardening
|-
| 630 || S17400 || 15–17 || 3–5 || 0.07 || 1 || 1 || 0.04 || 0.03 || - || Cu 3–5, Ta 0.15–0.45 <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.upmet.com/media/17-4.pdf |title=Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steel Type 17-4PH (S17400)}}</ref>
|}
=== Dasar kimia modern ===
Baris 300 ⟶ 541:
Untuk beberapa fungsi terbatas seperti inti elektromagnet, besi murni diproduksi dengan cara elektrolisis larutan [[fero sulfat]].
Bijih besi terdiri atas [[oksigen]] dan [[atom]] [[besi]] yang berikatan bersama dalam [[molekul]]. Besi sendiri biasanya didapatkan dalam bentuk [[magnetit]] (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>), [[hematit]] (Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>), [[goethit]], [[limonit]] atau [[siderit]]. Bijih besi biasanya kaya akan [[besi oksida]] dan beragam dalam hal [[warna]], dari kelabu tua, kuning muda, ungu tua, hingga merah karat. Saat ini, cadangan biji besi tampak banyak, namun seiring dengan bertambahnya penggunaan besi secara eksponensial berkelanjutan, cadangan ini mulai berkurang, karena jumlahnya tetap. Sebagai contoh, [[Lester Brown]] dari [[Worldwatch Institute]] telah memperkirakan bahwa bijih besi bisa habis dalam waktu 64 tahun berdasarkan pada ekstrapolasi konservatif dari 2% pertumbuhan per tahun.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mii.org/Minerals/photoiron.html |title=Iron Ore – Hematite, Magnetite & Taconite |work=Mineral Information Institute |access-date=7 April 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060417160321/http://www.mii.org/Minerals/photoiron.html |archive-date=17 April 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goldstein|first1=J.I.|last2=Scott|first2=E.R.D.|last3=Chabot|first3=N.L.|date=2009|title=Iron meteorites: Crystallization, thermal history, parent bodies, and origin|journal=Geochemistry|language=en|volume=69|issue=4|pages=293–325|doi=10.1016/j.chemer.2009.01.002|bibcode=2009ChEG...69..293G}}</ref>
;Tabel kandungan mineral besi
{| class=wikitable
!Mineral !! Rumus kimia !! Kandungan besi teoritis dalam mineral (dalam%)!! Kandungan besi teoritis setelah kalsinasi (dalam%)
|-
| [[Hematit]] || {{Chem|Fe|2|O|3}} || align="center" | 69,96 || align="center" | 69,96
|-
| [[Magnetit]] || {{Chem|Fe|3|O|4}} || align="center" | 72,4 || align="center" | 72,4
|-
| [[Magnesioferrite]] || {{Chem|MgOFe|2|O|3}} || align="center" | 56-65 || align="center" | 56-65
|-
| [[Goetit]] || {{Chem|Fe|2|O|3|H|2|O}} || align="center" | 62,9 || align="center" | 70
|-
| [[Hydrogœthite]] || {{Chem|3Fe|2|O|3|4H|2|O}} || align="center" | 60,9 || align="center" | 70
|-
| [[Limonit]] || {{Chem|2Fe|2|O|3|3H|2|O}} || align="center" | 60 || align="center" | 70
|-
| [[Siderite]] || {{Chem|FeCO|3}} || align="center" | 48,3 || align="center" | 70
|-
| [[Pirit]] || {{Chem|FeS|2}} || align="center" | 46,6 || align="center" | 70
|-
| [[Pyrrhotite]] || {{Chem|Fe|1-x|S}} || align="center" | 61,5 || align="center" | 70
|-
| [[Ilmenit]] || {{Chem|FeTiO|3}} || align="center" | 36,8 || align="center" | 36,8
|}
==== Proses tanur tinggi ====
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