|
Kompleksitas sistem ini, khususnya tumpang tindih antara administrasi Negara dan teritorial, menyebabkan gerakan reformasi administrasi. Sejak tahun 1904, perdana menteri Ernest von Koerber telah menyatakan bahwa perubahan menyeluruh dalam prinsip-prinsip administrasi akan sangat penting jika mesin Negara terus bekerja. Richard von BinerthTindakan terakhir sebagai perdana menteri Austria pada Mei 1911 adalah pengangkatan komisi yang dinominasikan oleh Kaisar untuk menyusun skema reformasi administrasi. Reskrip kekaisaran tidak menampilkan reformasi sebagai hal yang mendesak atau menguraikan filosofi keseluruhan untuk mereka. Kemajuan masyarakat yang terus menerus, katanya, telah membuat tuntutan yang meningkat pada administrasi, artinya, reformasi dianggap diperlukan karena perubahan zaman, bukan masalah mendasar pada struktur administrasi. Komisi reformasi pertama-tama menyibukkan diri dengan reformasi yang tidak ada kontroversi. Pada tahun 1912 diterbitkan "Proposal untuk pelatihan pejabat Negara". Komisi menghasilkan beberapa laporan lebih lanjut sebelum pekerjaannya terhenti oleh pecahnya Perang Dunia I pada tahun 1914.Pemerintah memutuskan program otonomi nasional sebagai dasar reformasi administrasi, namun tidak pernah dilaksanakan. <ref>"Austrian Empire" ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1922</ref>
=== Government of'''Pemerintah Transleithania''' ===
{{See also|[[:en:List of administrative divisions of the Kingdom of Hungary#1867–1920|Daftar pembagian administratif Kerajaan Hongaria § 1867–1920]]}}
[[File:Ferenc József koronázása Budán.jpg|thumb|right|[[CoronationPenobatan of the Hungarian monarch|Coronation]] of [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Francis Joseph I]] and [[Empressdan Elisabeth ofAmalie Austria|Elisabethdi Amalie]] atGereja [[Matthias Church]], [[Buda]] , 8 JuneJuni 1867]]
[[File:Kingdom of Hungary counties.svg|thumb|200px|right|MapPeta ofkabupaten theTanah counties of the Lands of the Crown ofMahkota St. StephenStefanus (Hungary properHungaria anddan CroatiaKroasia-Slavonia)]]
TheKaisar Emperormonarki ofganda thedi dualsebelah monarchykanannya inRaja hisApostolik rightHongaria ofdan ApostolicRaja KingKroasia of Hungary and King of Croatia anddan Slavonia, rulerpenguasa ofbagian thekerajaan HungarianHongaria, part of the realm,secara officiallyresmi namedbernama '''TheTanah LandsMahkota ofHongaria the Holy Hungarian CrownSuci''' ( ''A Magyar Szent Korona országai'' ) appointedmenunjuk thePemerintah GovernmentHongaria of HungaryHongaria. TheKementerian HungarianHongaria ministriesmembawa carriedsebutan theKerajaan designation the Kingdom of Hungary'sHongaria ... MinistryKementerian (sing. ''Magyar Királyi ... minisztérium'' ), indi whichmana Royal standsadalah forsingkatan thedari gelar Kaiser's title of Apostolic KingRaja ofApostolik HungaryHongaria. ExecutiveKekuasaan powereksekutif indi Transleithania wasdipegang vestedoleh inkabinet ayang cabinetbertanggung responsiblejawab tokepada theMajelis National AssemblyNasional, consistingyang terdiri ofdari tensepuluh ministersmenteri:
* the [[List of prime ministers of Hungary#Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen (1867–1918)|Prime Minister]] (''Magyar Királyság miniszterelnök'')
* [[Minister of Finance (Hungary)#Hungarian Kingdom (1867–1918)|Minister of Finance]] (''Magyar Királyság Pénzügyminiszterium'');
* [[List of Interior Ministers of Hungary#Hungarian Kingdom (1867–1918)|Minister of the Interior]]
* [[Minister of Agriculture (Hungary)#Hungarian Kingdom (1867–1889)|Minister of Agriculture, Industry, and Trade]], split into separate ministries of [[Minister of Agriculture (Hungary)#Ministers of Agriculture (1889–1919)|Agriculture]] (''Magyar Királyság Földművelésügyi Minisztérium'') and Trade (''Magyar Királyság kereskedelemügyi Miniszterium'') in 1889;
* [[Minister of Public Works and Transport (Hungary)|Ministry of Public Works and Transport]], folded into the ministry of trade in 1889;
* [[Minister of Justice (Hungary)#Hungarian Kingdom (1867–1918)|Minister of Justice]] (''Magyar Királyság Igazságügy Miniszterium'');
* [[Minister of Defence (Hungary)#Ministers of Defence (1867–1918)|Minister of National Defence]] (''Magyar Királyság Honvédelmi Miniszterium'');
* [[Minister of Education (Hungary)#Hungarian Kingdom (1867–1918)|Minister of Religion and Public Education]] (''Magyar Királyság Vallás- és Közoktatásügyi Miniszterium'');
* [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (Hungary)#Ministers besides the King (1867–1918)|Minister besides the King]] (''A Király Személye Körüli Minisztérium''), the liaison office in Vienna between the Emperor in his right of Apostolic King of Hungary and the Hungarian government and the
* [[Minister of Croatian Affairs of Hungary|Minister without Portfollio of Croatian, Slavonian and Dalmatian Affairs]] (Hungarian: ''Horvát-Szlavón-Dalmát Tárca Nélküli Miniszter'' or Croatian: ''Hrvatsko-slavonsko-dalmatinski Ministar bez Lisnice''). As the Kingdom of Hungary was in personal union with the Kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia, there was a minister at the Government of Hungary responsible for the limited autonomy of those regions.
* Perdana Menteri ( ''Magyar Királyság miniszterelnök'' )
From 1867 the administrative and political divisions of the lands belonging to the Hungarian crown were remodeled due to some restorations and other changes. In 1868 [[Principality of Transylvania (1711–1867)|Transylvania]] was definitely reunited to Hungary proper, and the town and district of [[Fiume]] maintained its status as a [[Corpus separatum (Fiume)|''Corpus separatum'']] ("separate body"). The "[[Military Frontier]]" was abolished in stages between 1871 and 1881, with [[Banat Military Frontier|Banat]] and [[Šajkaška]] being incorporated into Hungary proper and the [[Croatian Military Frontier|Croatian]] and [[Slavonian Military Frontier]]s joining Croatia-Slavonia.
* Menteri Keuangan ( ''Magyar Királyság Pénzügyminiszterium'' );
* Menteri Dalam Negeri
* Menteri Pertanian, Industri, dan Perdagangan , dipecah menjadi kementerian Pertanian ( ''Magyar Királyság Földművelésügyi Minisztérium'' ) dan Perdagangan ( ''Magyar Királyság kereskedelemügyi Miniszterium'' ) pada tahun 1889;
* Kementerian Pekerjaan Umum dan Transportasi , dilipat menjadi kementerian perdagangan pada tahun 1889;
* Menteri Kehakiman ( ''Magyar Királyság Igazságügy Miniszterium'' );
* Menteri Pertahanan Nasional ( ''Magyar Királyság Honvédelmi Miniszterium'' );
* Menteri Agama dan Pendidikan Umum ( ''Magyar Királyság Vallás- és Közoktatásügyi Miniszterium'' );
* Menteri selain Raja ( ''A Király Személye Körüli Minisztérium'' ), kantor penghubung di Wina antara Kaisar di sebelah kanannya Raja Apostolik Hongaria dan pemerintah Hongaria dan
* Menteri tanpa Portofolio Urusan Kroasia, Slavia dan Dalmatian (Hongaria: ''Horvát-Szlavón-Dalmát Tárca Nélküli Miniszter'' atau bahasa Kroasia: ''Hrvatsko-slavonsko-dalmatinski Ministar bez Lisnice'' ). Karena Kerajaan Hongaria berada dalam persatuan pribadi dengan Kerajaan Kroasia dan Slavonia, ada seorang menteri di Pemerintah Hongaria yang bertanggung jawab atas otonomi terbatas daerah tersebut.
Dari tahun 1867 pembagian administratif dan politik tanah milik mahkota Hongaria direnovasi karena beberapa restorasi dan perubahan lainnya. Pada tahun 1868 Transylvania benar-benar dipersatukan kembali dengan Hongaria, dan kota serta distrik Fiume mempertahankan statusnya sebagai ''Corpus separatum'' ("badan terpisah"). " Perbatasan Militer " dihapus secara bertahap antara tahun 1871 dan 1881, dengan Banat dan Šajkaška dimasukkan ke dalam Hongaria dan Perbatasan Militer Kroasia dan Slavonia bergabung dengan Kroasia-Slavonia.
==== Autonomous Government of Croatia-Slavonia ====
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2022}}
The Autonomous Government, officially ''Royal Croatian–Slavonian–Dalmatian Land Government'' ({{lang-hr|Zemaljska vlada}} or ''Kraljevska hrvatsko–slavonsko–dalmatinska zemaljska vlada'') was established in 1869 with its seat in [[Zagreb]]. The Autonomous Government included:
* the [[Ban of Croatia|Ban]] (''Hrvatski ban'') - the head of the Autonomous Government;
* the Department of Internal Affairs (''Odjel za unutarnje poslove'');
* the Department of Religion and Education (''Odjel za bogoštovlje i nastavu'');
* the Department of Justice (''Odjel za pravosuđe'');
* the Department of National Economy (''Odjel za narodno gospodarstvo'') (from 1914).
==== '''Pemerintah Otonomi Kroasia-Slavonia''' ====
====Local administration and governments of Transleithania====
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2022}}Pemerintah Otonom, secara resmi ''Pemerintah Tanah Kerajaan Kroasia–Slavonian–Dalmatian'' ( Bahasa Kroasia : ''Zemaljska vlada'' atau ''Kraljevska hrvatsko–slavonsko–dalmatinska zemaljska vlada'' ) didirikan pada tahun 1869 dengan kedudukannya di Zagreb . Pemerintah Otonomi meliputi:
In regard to local government, Hungary had traditionally been divided into around seventy [[Counties of Hungary (before 1920)|counties]] ({{lang-hu|megyék}}, singular ''megye''; Croatian: {{lang-hr|županija}}) and an array of districts and cities with special statuses. This system was reformed in two stages. In 1870, most historical privileges of territorial subdivisions were abolished, but the existing names and territories were retained. At this point, there were a total of 175 territorial subdivisions: 65 counties (49 in Hungary proper, 8 in Transylvania, and 8 in Croatia), 89 cities with municipal rights, and 21 other types of municipality (3 in Hungary proper and 18 in Transylvania). In a further reform in 1876, most of the cities and other types of municipality were incorporated into the counties. The counties in Hungary were grouped into seven circuits,<ref name="h1911"/> which had no administrative function. The lowest level subdivision was the district or [[Processus (Kingdom of Hungary)|''processus'']] ({{lang-hu|szolgabírói járás}}).
* Larangan ( Larangan ''Hrvatski'' ) - kepala Pemerintahan Otonomi;
After 1876, some urban municipalities remained independent of the counties in which they were situated. There were 26 of these urban municipalities in Hungary: Arad, Baja, Debreczen, Győr, Hódmezővásárhely, Kassa, Kecskemét, Kolozsvár, Komárom, Marosvásárhely, Nagyvárad, Pancsova, Pécs, Pozsony, Selmecz- és Bélabanya, Sopron, Szabadka, Szatmárnémeti, Szeged, Székesfehervár, Temesvár, Újvidék, Versecz, Zombor, and Budapest, the capital of the country.<ref name="h1911"/> In Croatia-Slavonia, there were four: Osijek, Varaždin and Zagreb and Zemun.<ref name="h1911"/> Fiume continued to form a separate division.
* Departemen Dalam Negeri ( ''Odjel za unutarnje poslove'' );
* Departemen Agama dan Pendidikan ( ''Odjel za bogoštovlje i nastavu'' );
* Departemen Kehakiman ( ''Odjel za pravosuđe'' );
* Departemen Ekonomi Nasional ( ''Odjel za narodno gospodarstvo'' ) (sejak 1914).
==== '''Administrasi lokal dan pemerintah Transleithania''' ====
The administration of the municipalities was carried on by an official appointed by the king. These municipalities each had a council of twenty members.
Berkenaan dengan pemerintahan lokal, Hongaria secara tradisional dibagi menjadi sekitar tujuh puluh kabupaten ( Bahasa Hongaria : ''megyék , megye'' tunggal ; Kroasia: Bahasa Kroasia : ''županija'') dan deretan kabupaten dan kota dengan status khusus. Sistem ini direformasi dalam dua tahap. Pada tahun 1870, sebagian besar hak istimewa historis dari pembagian teritorial dihapuskan, tetapi nama dan wilayah yang ada tetap dipertahankan. Pada titik ini, ada total 175 subdivisi teritorial: 65 kabupaten (49 di Hongaria, 8 di Transilvania, dan 8 di Kroasia), 89 kota dengan hak munisipal, dan 21 jenis munisipalitas lainnya (3 di Hongaria dan 18 di Transylvania). Dalam reformasi lebih lanjut pada tahun 1876, sebagian besar kota dan jenis munisipalitas lainnya dimasukkan ke dalam kabupaten. Kabupaten di Hongaria dikelompokkan menjadi tujuh sirkuit, <ref name=":0" /> yang tidak memiliki fungsi administratif. Subdivisi tingkat terendah adalah distrik atau ''processus'' ( Bahasa Hongaria: ''szolgabírói járás'' ).
Counties were led by a [[Ispán|County head]] ({{lang-hu|Ispán}} or {{lang-hr|župan}}) appointed by the king and under the control of the Ministry of the Interior. Each county had a municipal committee of 20 members,<ref name="h1911"/> comprising 50% virilists (persons paying the highest direct taxes) and 50% elected persons fulfilling the prescribed census and ''ex officio'' members (deputy county head, main notary, and others). The powers and responsibilities of the counties were constantly decreased and were transferred to regional agencies of the kingdom's ministries.
Setelah tahun 1876, beberapa kotamadya perkotaan tetap independen dari kabupaten tempat mereka berada. Terdapat 26 munisipalitas perkotaan berikut di Hongaria: Arad, Baja, Debreczen, Győr, Hódmezővásárhely, Kassa, Kecskemét, Kolozsvár, Komárom, Marosvásárhely, Nagyvárad, Pancsova, Pécs, Pozsony, Selmecz- és Bélabanya, Sopron, Szabadka, Szatmárnémeti, Szeged , Székesfehervár, Temesvár, Újvidék, Versecz, Zombor, dan Budapest, ibu kota negara. <ref name=":0" /> Di Kroasia-Slavonia, ada empat: Osijek, Varaždin dan Zagreb dan Zemun. <ref name=":0" /> Fiume terus membentuk divisi terpisah.
===Government of the Bosnia and Herzegovina condominium===
[[Image:Administrativna podjela BiH 1895. godine.png|thumb|right|200px|Circuits (''Kreise'') of Bosnia and Herzegovina: [[Banja Luka]], [[Bihać]], [[Mostar]], [[Sarajevo]], [[Travnik]], [[Tuzla]] ]]
{{Main|Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
The Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina was headed by a governor-general ({{lang-de|Landsschef}}), who was both the head of the civil administration and the commander of the military forces based in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Due to the military functions of the position all nine governor-generals were army officers. The executive branch was headed by a National Council, which was chaired by the governor and contained the governor's deputy and chiefs of departments. At first, the government had only three departments, administrative, financial and legislative. Later, other departments, including construction, economics, education, religion, and technical, were founded as well.{{sfn|Zovko|2007|p=16}} The administration of the country, together with the carrying out of the laws, devolved upon the Territorial Government in Sarajevo, which was subordinate and responsible to the Common Ministry of Finance. The existing administrative authorities of the Territory retained their previous organization and functions.<ref name="Rene Albrecht-Carrie 1973 pp 259"/>
Administrasi kota dilakukan oleh seorang pejabat yang ditunjuk oleh raja. Kotamadya ini masing-masing memiliki dewan yang terdiri dari dua puluh anggota. Kabupaten dipimpin oleh seorang kepala daerah ( Bahasa Hongaria : ''Ispán'' atau Bahasa Kroasia : ''župan'' ) yang ditunjuk oleh raja dan di bawah kendali Kementerian Dalam Negeri. Setiap kabupaten memiliki komite kota dari 20 anggota, <ref name=":0" /> yang terdiri dari 50% virilist (orang yang membayar pajak langsung tertinggi) dan 50% orang terpilih yang memenuhi sensus dan ''ex officio yang ditentukan.''anggota (wakil kepala daerah, notaris utama, dan lain-lain). Kekuasaan dan tanggung jawab kabupaten terus dikurangi dan dialihkan ke badan-badan regional kementerian kerajaan.
The Austrian-Hungarian authorities left the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] division of Bosnia and Herzegovina untouched, and only changed the names of divisional units. Thus the Bosnia Vilayet was renamed ''Reichsland'', ''[[sanjak]]s'' were renamed ''Kreise'' (Circuits), ''[[kaza]]s'' were renamed ''Bezirke'' (Districts), and [[nahiyah]]s became ''Exposituren''.{{sfn|Zovko|2007|p=16}} There were six ''Kreise'' and 54 ''Bezirke''.{{sfn|Džaja|1994|p=45}} The heads of the ''Kreises'' were ''Kreiseleiters,'' and the heads of the ''Bezirke'' were ''Bezirkesleiters''.{{sfn|Zovko|2007|p=16}}
=== '''Pemerintah kondominium Bosnia dan Herzegovina''' ===
[[Image:Administrativna podjela BiH 1895. godine.png|thumb|right|200px|Sirkuit ( ''Kreise'' ) Bosnia dan Herzegovina: Banja Luka , Bihać , Mostar , Sarajevo , Travnik , Tuzla ]]
{{Main|Kekuasaan Austria-Hongaria di Bosnia dan Herzegovina}}
Pemerintahan Bosnia dan Herzegovina dipimpin oleh seorang gubernur jenderal ( Bahasa Jerman : ''Landsschef'' ), yang merupakan kepala pemerintahan sipil dan komandan pasukan militer yang berbasis di Bosnia dan Herzegovina. Karena fungsi militer dari posisinya, kesembilan gubernur jenderal adalah perwira militer. Cabang eksekutif dipimpin oleh Dewan Nasional, yang diketuai oleh gubernur dan terdiri dari wakil gubernur dan kepala departemen. Pada awalnya, pemerintah hanya memiliki tiga departemen, administrasi, keuangan, dan legislatif. Belakangan, departemen lain, termasuk konstruksi, ekonomi, pendidikan, agama, dan teknik, juga didirikan. <ref name=":0" />Administrasi negara, bersama dengan pelaksanaan undang-undang, diserahkan kepada Pemerintah Teritorial di Sarajevo, yang berada di bawah dan bertanggung jawab kepada Kementerian Keuangan Umum. Otoritas administratif Territory yang ada mempertahankan organisasi dan fungsi mereka sebelumnya. <ref name="Rene Albrecht-Carrie 1973 pp 259" />
Otoritas Austria-Hongaria membiarkan divisi Utsmaniyah di Bosnia dan Herzegovina tidak tersentuh, dan hanya mengubah nama unit divisi. Jadi Vilayet Bosnia diganti namanya menjadi ''Reichsland'' , ''sanjak'' diganti namanya menjadi ''Kreise'' (Sirkuit), ''kaza'' diganti namanya menjadi ''Bezirke'' (Distrik), dan nahiyah diubah namanya menjadi ''Exposituren'' . <ref name=":0" /> Ada enam ''Kreise'' dan 54 ''Bezirke'' . <ref name=":0" /> Kepala suku ''Kreise'' adalah ''Kreiseleiter,'' dan kepala suku ''Bezirke'' adalah''Bezirkesleiter'' . {{sfn|Zovko|2007|p=16}}
=== '''Sistem peradilan''' ===
===Judicial system===
====Cisleithania====
{{Main|[[:en:Judiciary of Austria#December Constitution|Kehakiman Austria § Konstitusi Desember]]}}
Konstitusi Desember 1867 memulihkan supremasi hukum , independensi peradilan , dan pengadilan juri publik di Austria. Sistem pengadilan umum memiliki empat anak tangga yang sama seperti yang masih ada sampai sekarang:
* Pengadilan distrik ( ''Bezirksgerichte'' );
* Pengadilan daerah ( ''Kreisgerichte'' );
* Pengadilan tinggi daerah ( ''Oberlandesgerichte'' );
* Mahkamah Agung ( ''Oberster Gerichts- und Kassationshof'' ).
Warga Habsburg mulai sekarang dapat membawa Negara ke pengadilan jika hal itu melanggar hak-hak dasar mereka. <ref name=":0" /> Karena pengadilan reguler masih belum mampu mengesampingkan birokrasi, apalagi legislatif, jaminan ini mengharuskan pembentukan pengadilan spesialis yang dapat: {{sfnaut|Brauneder|2009|160−161|Hoke|1996|403−404}}
* Pengadilan Tata Usaha Negara ( ''Verwaltungsgerichtshof'' ), ditetapkan oleh Undang-Undang Dasar Kekuasaan Kehakiman tahun 1867 ( ''Staatsgrundgesetz über die richterliche Gewalt'' ) dan diterapkan pada tahun 1876, memiliki kekuasaan untuk meninjau legalitas tindakan administratif, memastikan bahwa cabang eksekutif tetap setia pada prinsip peraturan hukum.
* Pengadilan Kekaisaran ( ''Reichsgericht'' ), ditetapkan oleh Undang-Undang Dasar tentang Penciptaan Pengadilan Kekaisaran ( ''Staatsgrundgesetz über die Einrichtung eines Reichsgerichtes'' ) pada tahun 1867 dan diterapkan pada tahun 1869, memutuskan konflik demarkasi antara pengadilan dan birokrasi, antara wilayah konstituennya, dan antara wilayah individu dan Kekaisaran. <ref name=":0" /> <ref name=":0" /> Pengadilan Kekaisaran juga mendengar pengaduan warga negara yang mengaku telah dilanggar hak konstitusionalnya, meskipun kekuasaannya tidak kasasi: pengadilan hanya dapat membela pengadu dengan ''menyatakan'' pemerintah salah, bukan dengan benar-benar membatalkan keputusannya yang salah. <ref name="rgbi143">{{cite Austrian gazette| type=RGBl| date=1867| no=143| p=397| desub=Staatsgrundgesetz über die Einsetzung eines Reichsgerichtes| access-date=October 6, 2018}}</ref> {{sfnaut|Brauneder|2009|160|Hoke|1996|400}}
* Pengadilan Negeri ( ''Staatsgerichtshof'' ) meminta pertanggungjawaban menteri Kaisar atas kesalahan politik yang dilakukan saat menjabat. <ref name=":0" /> <ref name=":0" /> Meskipun Kaisar tidak dapat dibawa ke pengadilan, banyak dari keputusannya sekarang bergantung pada menteri terkait untuk menandatanganinya kembali. Pendekatan ganda untuk membuat Kaisar bergantung pada menterinya dan juga membuat menteri bertanggung jawab secara pidana atas hasil yang buruk pertama-tama akan memungkinkan, kedua memotivasi para menteri untuk menekan raja. <ref>{{cite Austrian gazette| type=RGBl| date=1867| no=101| p=208| desub=Gesetz über die Verantwortlichkeit der Minister| access-date=October 6, 2018}}</ref>
==== Transleithania ====
Kekuasaan kehakiman juga independen dari eksekutif di Hongaria. Setelah Penyelesaian Kroasia–Hongaria tahun 1868, Kroasia-Slavonia memiliki sistem peradilan independennya sendiri (Tabel Tujuh adalah pengadilan tingkat terakhir untuk Kroasia-Slavonia dengan yurisdiksi perdata dan pidana terakhir). Otoritas peradilan di Hongaria adalah:
# pengadilan distrik dengan hakim tunggal (458 tahun 1905);
The December Constitution of 1867 restored the [[rule of law]], [[judicial independence|independence of the judiciary]], and public jury trials in Austria. The system of general courts had the same four rungs it still has today:
# pengadilan daerah dengan hakim perguruan tinggi (76 jumlahnya); untuk ini dilampirkan 15 pengadilan juri untuk pelanggaran pers. Ini adalah pengadilan tingkat pertama. Di Kroasia-Slavonia ini dikenal sebagai meja pengadilan setelah tahun 1874;
* District courts ({{lang|de|Bezirksgerichte}});
# Meja Kerajaan (berjumlah 12), yang merupakan pengadilan tingkat kedua, didirikan di Budapest, Debrecen, Győr, Kassa, Kolozsvár, Marosvásárhely, Nagyvárad, Pécs, Pressburg, Szeged, Temesvár dan Meja Ban di Zagreb.
* Regional courts ({{lang|de|Kreisgerichte}});
# Mahkamah Agung Kerajaan di Budapest, dan Mahkamah Agung, atau Tabel Tujuh, di Zagreb, yang merupakan otoritas kehakiman tertinggi. Ada juga pengadilan niaga khusus di Budapest, pengadilan angkatan laut di Fiume, dan pengadilan tentara khusus. <ref name="h1911" />
* Higher regional courts ({{lang|de|Oberlandesgerichte}});
* Supreme Court ({{lang|de|Oberster Gerichts- und Kassationshof}}).
Habsburg subjects would from now on be able to take the State to court should it violate their fundamental rights.{{sfnaut|Brauneder|2009|157}} Since regular courts were still unable to overrule the bureaucracy, much less the legislature, these guarantees necessitated the creation of specialist courts that could:{{sfnaut|Brauneder|2009|160−161|Hoke|1996|403−404}}
* The Administrative Court ({{lang|de|Verwaltungsgerichtshof}}), stipulated by the 1867 Basic Law on Judicial Power ({{lang|de|Staatsgrundgesetz über die richterliche Gewalt}}) and implemented in 1876, had the power to review the legality of administrative acts, ensuring that the executive branch remained faithful to the principle of the rule of law.
* The Imperial Court ({{lang|de|Reichsgericht}}), stipulated by the Basic Law on the Creation of an Imperial Court ({{lang|de|Staatsgrundgesetz über die Einrichtung eines Reichsgerichtes}}) in 1867 and implemented in 1869, decided demarcation conflicts between courts and the bureaucracy, between its constituent territories, and between individual territories and the Empire.<ref name=rgbi143/>{{sfnaut|Hoke|1996|400, 403}} The Imperial Court also heard complaints of citizens who claimed to have been violated in their constitutional rights, although its powers were not cassatory: it could only vindicate the complainant by {{em|declaring}} the government to be in the wrong, not by actually voiding its wrongful decisions.<ref name=rgbi143>{{cite Austrian gazette| type=RGBl| date=1867| no=143| p=397| desub=Staatsgrundgesetz über die Einsetzung eines Reichsgerichtes| access-date=October 6, 2018}}</ref>{{sfnaut|Brauneder|2009|160|Hoke|1996|400}}
* The State Court ({{lang|de|Staatsgerichtshof}}) held the Emperor's ministers accountable for political misconduct committed in office.<ref>{{cite Austrian gazette| type=RGBl| date=1867| no=145| p=400| desub=Staatsgrundgesetz über die Ausübung der Regierungs- und der Vollzugsgewalt| access-date=October 6, 2018}}</ref>{{sfn|Brauneder|2009|p=161}} Although the Emperor could not be taken to court, many of his decrees now depended on the relevant minister to countersign them. The double-pronged approach of making the Emperor dependent on his ministers and also making ministers criminally liable for bad outcomes would firstly enable, secondly motivate the ministers to put pressure on the monarch.<ref>{{cite Austrian gazette| type=RGBl| date=1867| no=101| p=208| desub=Gesetz über die Verantwortlichkeit der Minister| access-date=October 6, 2018}}</ref>
==== '''Kondominium Bosnia dan Herzegovina''' ====
====Transleithania====
Statuta Teritorial memperkenalkan hak dan hukum modern di Bosnia-Herzegovina, dan secara umum menjamin hak-hak sipil penduduk Wilayah, yaitu kewarganegaraan, kebebasan pribadi, perlindungan oleh otoritas yudisial yang kompeten, kebebasan keyakinan dan hati nurani, pelestarian individualitas dan bahasa nasional, kebebasan berbicara, kebebasan belajar dan pendidikan, domisili yang tidak dapat diganggu gugat, kerahasiaan pos dan telegraf, properti yang tidak dapat diganggu gugat, hak petisi, dan akhirnya hak mengadakan pertemuan.
Judicial power was also independent of the executive in Hungary. After the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868, Croatia-Slavonia had its own independent judicial system (the Table of Seven was the court of last instance for Croatia-Slavonia with final civil and criminal jurisdiction). The judicial authorities in Hungary were:
# the district courts with single judges (458 in 1905);
# the county courts with collegiate judgeships (76 in number); to these were attached 15 jury courts for press offences. These were courts of first instance. In Croatia-Slavonia these were known as the court tables after 1874;
# Royal Tables (12 in number), which were courts of second instance, established at Budapest, Debrecen, Győr, Kassa, Kolozsvár, Marosvásárhely, Nagyvárad, Pécs, Pressburg, Szeged, Temesvár and Ban's Table at Zagreb.
# The Royal Supreme Court at Budapest, and the Supreme Court of Justice, or Table of Seven, at Zagreb, which were the highest judicial authorities. There were also a special commercial court at Budapest, a naval court at Fiume, and special army courts.<ref name="h1911"/>
Otoritas yudisial yang ada di Territory mempertahankan organisasi dan fungsi mereka sebelumnya. <ref name="Rene Albrecht-Carrie 1973 pp 259" />
====Bosnia and Herzegovina condominium====
The Territorial Statute introduced the modern rights and laws in Bosnia–Herzegovina, and it guaranteed generally the civil rights of the inhabitants of the Territory, namely citizenship, personal liberty, protection by the competent judicial authorities, liberty of creed and conscience, preservation of the national individuality and language, freedom of speech, freedom of learning and education, inviolability of the domicile, secrecy of posts and telegraphs, inviolability of property, the right of petition, and finally the right of holding meetings.
=== '''Anggaran''' ===
The existing judicial authorities of the Territory retained their previous organization and functions.<ref name="Rene Albrecht-Carrie 1973 pp 259"/>
Meskipun Austria dan Hongaria berbagi mata uang yang sama, mereka adalah entitas yang berdaulat dan mandiri secara fiskal. Sejak dimulainya persatuan pribadi (sejak 1527), pemerintah Kerajaan Hongaria dapat mempertahankan anggarannya yang terpisah dan mandiri. Setelah revolusi tahun 1848–1849, anggaran Hongaria digabungkan dengan anggaran Austria, dan baru setelah Kompromi tahun 1867 Hongaria memperoleh anggaran terpisah. <ref name="h1911">{{EB1911|inline=1|last=Briliant|first=Oscar|wstitle=Hungary|volume=13|page=900}}</ref>
===Budget '''Hak suara''' ===
Menjelang akhir abad ke-19, paruh Austria dari monarki ganda mulai bergerak ke arah konstitusionalisme . Sistem konstitusional dengan parlemen, Reichsrat dibentuk, dan undang-undang hak diberlakukan juga pada tahun 1867. Hak pilih untuk majelis rendah Reichstag secara bertahap diperluas hingga tahun 1907, ketika hak pilih yang sama untuk semua warga negara laki-laki diperkenalkan.
Despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities.<ref>{{cite book|title=European Review of Economic History|date=April 2006|volume=10|issue=1|first=Marc|last=Flandreau|asin=B00440PZZC|id=1361–4916|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=431004|pages=3–33|doi=10.1017/S1361491605001607|s2cid=153255836|access-date=18 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115004305/http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=431004|archive-date=15 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Since the beginnings of the personal union (from 1527), the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separate and independent budget. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, and it was only after the Compromise of 1867 that Hungary obtained a separate budget.<ref name="h1911">{{EB1911|inline=1|last=Briliant|first=Oscar|wstitle=Hungary|volume=13|page=900}}</ref>
Pemilihan legislatif Cisleithania tahun 1907 adalah pemilihan umum pertama yang diadakan di bawah hak pilih laki-laki universal , setelah reformasi pemilihan yang menghapus persyaratan pembayaran pajak untuk pemilih telah diadopsi oleh dewan dan disahkan oleh Kaisar Franz Joseph pada awal tahun. <ref name=":0" /> Namun, alokasi kursi didasarkan pada pendapatan pajak dari Negara bagian-Negara bagian. <ref name="NS1">[[Dieter Nohlen]] & Philip Stöver (2010) ''Elections in Europe: A data handbook'', p.184 {{ISBN|978-3-8329-5609-7}}</ref>
===Voting rights===
Towards the end of the 19th century, the Austrian half of the dual monarchy began to move towards [[constitutionalism]]. A constitutional system with a parliament, the [[Reichsrat (Austria)|Reichsrat]] was created, and a bill of rights was enacted also in 1867. Suffrage to the Reichstag's lower house was gradually expanded until 1907, when equal suffrage for all male citizens was introduced.
=== '''Isu-isu pokok dalam politik internal''' ===
The [[1907 Cisleithanian legislative election]] were the first elections held under [[Universal suffrage|universal male suffrage]], after an electoral reform abolishing tax-paying requirements for voters had been adopted by the council and was endorsed by Emperor Franz Joseph earlier in the year.<ref name="NS1">[[Dieter Nohlen]] & Philip Stöver (2010) ''Elections in Europe: A data handbook'', p.184 {{ISBN|978-3-8329-5609-7}}</ref> However, seat allocations were based on tax revenues from the States.<ref name=NS1/>
Aristokrasi tradisional dan kelas bangsawan berbasis tanah secara bertahap menghadapi orang-orang kota yang semakin kaya, yang mencapai kekayaan melalui perdagangan dan industrialisasi. Kelas menengah dan atas perkotaan cenderung mencari kekuatan mereka sendiri dan mendukung gerakan progresif setelah revolusi di Eropa.
Seperti di Kekaisaran Jerman, Kekaisaran Austro-Hongaria sering menggunakan kebijakan dan praktik ekonomi liberal. Sejak tahun 1860-an, para pengusaha berhasil mengindustrialisasi bagian-bagian Kekaisaran. Anggota borjuis yang baru makmur mendirikan rumah besar dan mulai mengambil peran penting dalam kehidupan perkotaan yang menyaingi aristokrasi. Pada periode awal, mereka mendorong pemerintah mencari investasi asing untuk membangun infrastruktur, seperti rel kereta api, untuk membantu industrialisasi, transportasi dan komunikasi, serta pembangunan.[[File:Manifestace za hlasovací právo 1905.jpg|thumb|Demonstrasi untuk hak universal untuk memilih di Praha, Bohemia, 1905]]
===Principal issues in the internal politics===
The traditional aristocracy and land-based gentry class gradually faced increasingly wealthy men of the cities, who achieved wealth through trade and industrialization. The urban middle and upper class tended to seek their own power and supported progressive movements in the aftermath of revolutions in Europe.
Pengaruh kaum liberal di Austria, kebanyakan etnis Jerman, melemah di bawah kepemimpinan Count Eduard von Taaffe , perdana menteri Austria dari tahun 1879 hingga 1893. Taaffe menggunakan koalisi partai-partai pendeta, konservatif, dan Slavia untuk melemahkan kaum liberal. Di Bohemia , misalnya, dia mengesahkan bahasa Ceko sebagai bahasa resmi birokrasi dan sistem sekolah, sehingga mematahkan monopoli penutur bahasa Jerman dalam memegang jabatan. Reformasi semacam itu mendorong kelompok etnis lain untuk mendorong otonomi yang lebih besar juga. Dengan mempermainkan kebangsaan satu sama lain, pemerintah memastikan peran sentral monarki dalam menyatukan kelompok-kelompok kepentingan yang bersaing di era perubahan yang cepat.
As in the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire frequently used liberal economic policies and practices. From the 1860s, businessmen succeeded in industrializing parts of the Empire. Newly prosperous members of the [[bourgeoisie]] erected large homes and began to take prominent roles in urban life that rivaled the aristocracy's. In the early period, they encouraged the government to seek foreign investment to build up infrastructure, such as railroads, in aid of industrialization, transportation and communications, and development.
[[File:Manifestace za hlasovací právo 1905.jpg|thumb|Demonstration for [[Universal suffrage|universal right to vote]] in Prague, Bohemia, 1905]]
Selama Perang Dunia Pertama, meningkatnya sentimen nasional dan gerakan buruh berkontribusi pada pemogokan, protes, dan kerusuhan sipil di Kekaisaran. Setelah perang, republik, partai nasional berkontribusi pada disintegrasi dan runtuhnya monarki di Austria dan Hongaria. Republik didirikan di Wina dan Budapest. <ref>{{cite book|author=Aviel Roshwald|title=Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, the Middle East and Russia, 1914–23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ba97xyhIZDcC&pg=PA116|year=2002|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page=116|isbn=978-0-203-18772-2}}</ref>
The influence of liberals in Austria, most of them ethnic Germans, weakened under the leadership of [[Eduard Taaffe, 11th Viscount Taaffe|Count Eduard von Taaffe]], the Austrian prime minister from 1879 to 1893. Taaffe used a coalition of clergy, conservatives and Slavic parties to weaken the liberals. In [[Bohemia]], for example, he authorized [[Czech language|Czech]] as an official language of the bureaucracy and school system, thus breaking the German speakers' monopoly on holding office. Such reforms encouraged other ethnic groups to push for greater autonomy as well. By playing nationalities off one another, the government ensured the monarchy's central role in holding together competing interest groups in an era of rapid change.
Undang-undang untuk membantu kelas pekerja muncul dari kaum konservatif Kristen Katolik. Mereka beralih ke reformasi sosial dengan menggunakan model Swiss dan Jerman dan mengintervensi industri swasta. Di Jerman, Kanselir Otto von Bismarck menggunakan kebijakan semacam itu untuk menetralkan janji-janji sosialis. Umat Kristen Katolik mempelajari Undang-Undang Pabrik Swiss tahun 1877, yang membatasi jam kerja untuk semua orang dan memberikan tunjangan persalinan, dan undang-undang Jerman yang mengasuransikan pekerja dari risiko industri yang melekat di tempat kerja. Ini berfungsi sebagai dasar untuk Amandemen Kode Perdagangan Austria tahun 1885. <ref>Margarete Grandner, "Conservative Social Politics in Austria, 1880–1890." ''Austrian History Yearbook'' 27 (1996): 77–107.</ref>
During the First World War, rising national sentiments and labour movements contributed to strikes, protests and civil unrest in the Empire. After the war, republican, national parties contributed to the disintegration and collapse of the monarchy in Austria and Hungary. Republics were established in Vienna and Budapest.<ref>{{cite book|author=Aviel Roshwald|title=Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, the Middle East and Russia, 1914–23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ba97xyhIZDcC&pg=PA116|year=2002|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page=116|isbn=978-0-203-18772-2}}</ref>
Kompromi Austro-Hongaria dan para pendukungnya tetap sangat tidak populer di kalangan pemilih etnis Hongaria, dan keberhasilan elektoral yang berkelanjutan dari Partai Liberal yang pro-kompromi membuat frustrasi banyak pemilih Hongaria. Sementara partai liberal pro-kompromi adalah yang paling populer di kalangan pemilih etnis minoritas, partai minoritas Slovakia, Serbia, dan Rumania tetap tidak populer di kalangan etnis minoritas. Partai Hongaria nasionalis, yang didukung oleh mayoritas pemilih etnis Hongaria, tetap menjadi oposisi, kecuali dari tahun 1906 hingga 1910 di mana partai nasionalis Hongaria dapat membentuk pemerintahan. <ref>{{cite web|author=prof. András Gerő|year=2014|title=Nationalities and the Hungarian Parliament (1867–1918)|url=http://www.geroandras.hu/2014_Nationalities_and_the_Hungarian_Parliament.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425200559/http://www.geroandras.hu/2014_Nationalities_and_the_Hungarian_Parliament.pdf|archive-date=25 April 2019}}</ref>
Legislation to help the working class emerged from Catholic conservatives. They turned to social reform by using Swiss and German models and intervening in private industry. In Germany, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck had used such policies to neutralize socialist promises. The Catholics studied the Swiss Factory Act of 1877, which limited working hours for everyone and provided maternity benefits, and German laws that insured workers against industrial risks inherent in the workplace. These served as the basis for Austria's 1885 Trade Code Amendment.<ref>Margarete Grandner, "Conservative Social Politics in Austria, 1880–1890." ''Austrian History Yearbook'' 27 (1996): 77–107.</ref>
=== '''Urusan luar negeri''' ===
The [[Austro-Hungarian compromise]] and its supporters remained bitterly unpopular among the ethnic Hungarian voters, and the continuous electoral success of the pro-compromise [[Liberal Party (Hungary)|Liberal Party]] frustrated many Hungarian voters. While the pro-compromise liberal parties were the most popular among ethnic minority voters, the Slovak, Serb, and Romanian minority parties remained unpopular among the ethnic minorities. The nationalist Hungarian parties, which were supported by the overwhelming majority of ethnic Hungarian voters, remained in the opposition, except from 1906 to 1910 where the nationalist Hungarian parties were able to form government.<ref>{{cite web|author=prof. András Gerő|year=2014|title=Nationalities and the Hungarian Parliament (1867–1918)|url=http://www.geroandras.hu/2014_Nationalities_and_the_Hungarian_Parliament.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425200559/http://www.geroandras.hu/2014_Nationalities_and_the_Hungarian_Parliament.pdf|archive-date=25 April 2019}}</ref>
{{Further|[[:en:Foreign Ministry of Austria-Hungary|Kementerian Luar Negeri Austria-Hongaria]]|[[:en:List of diplomatic missions of Austria-Hungary|Daftar misi diplomatik Austria-Hongaria]]|[[:en:Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I|masuknya Austro-Hungaria ke dalam Perang Dunia I]]}}
Kaisar secara resmi bertanggung jawab atas urusan luar negeri. Menteri luar negerinya melakukan diplomasi. Lihat Menteri Kekaisaran dan Rumah Kerajaan dan Urusan Luar Negeri Austria-Hongaria (1867–1918) . <ref>F.R. Bridge, ''From Sadowa to Sarajevo: The Foreign Policy of Austria–Hungary 1866–1914'' (1972).</ref> <ref>Samuel R. Williamson, ''Austria-Hungary and the origins of the First World War'' (Macmillan International Higher Education, 1990).</ref>
===Foreign affairs===
{{Further|Foreign Ministry of Austria-Hungary|List of diplomatic missions of Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I}}
The emperor officially had charge of foreign affairs. His minister of foreign affairs conducted diplomacy. See [[List of foreign ministers of Austria-Hungary#Ministers of the Imperial and Royal House and of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)|Ministers of the Imperial and Royal House and of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)]].<ref>F.R. Bridge, ''From Sadowa to Sarajevo: The Foreign Policy of Austria–Hungary 1866–1914'' (1972).</ref><ref>Samuel R. Williamson, ''Austria-Hungary and the origins of the First World War'' (Macmillan International Higher Education, 1990).</ref>
== Struktur Pemerintahan ==
| 