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=== '''Hubungan etnis''' ===
{{See also|Trialisme di Austria-Hongaria|Austria Raya Serikat|Magyarisasi|Austro-Slavisme|Pan-Slavisme}}
[[File:Austria Hungary ethnic.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|EthnoPeta etno-linguistic map oflinguistik Austria–HungaryAustria–Hongaria, 1910]]
[[File:Meyers b12 s0486a.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|[[Peta etnografi Meyers Konversations-Lexikon]] ethnographic map of Austria–HungaryAustria–Hongaria, 1885]]
[[File:Literacy in Austria-Hungary (1880).JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.35|LiteracyLiterasi indi Austria–HungaryAustria–Hongaria (censussensus 1880)]]
[[File:Literacy in Hungary in the 1910s.png|thumb|right|upright=1.35|LiteracyKeaksaraan indi HungaryHongaria bymenurut countieskabupaten inpada tahun 1910 (excludingtidak termasuk CroatiaKroasia)]]
[[File:Austria1914physical.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|PhysicalPeta mapfisik ofAustria–Hongaria Austria–Hungary intahun 1914]]
Pada bulan Juli 1849, Parlemen Revolusi Hongaria memproklamirkan dan memberlakukan hak-hak etnis dan minoritas (undang-undang serupa berikutnya ada di Swiss), tetapi undang-undang ini dibatalkan setelah tentara Rusia dan Austria menumpas Revolusi Hongaria. Setelah Kerajaan Hongaria mencapai Kompromi dengan Dinasti Habsburg pada tahun 1867, salah satu tindakan pertama dari Parlemennya yang dipulihkan adalah mengesahkan Undang-Undang Kebangsaan (Undang-Undang Nomor XLIV tahun 1868). Itu adalah undang-undang liberal dan menawarkan hak bahasa dan budaya yang luas. Ia tidak mengakui orang non-Hongaria memiliki hak untuk membentuk negara dengan otonomi teritorial apa pun. <ref name="suedosteuropa-gesellschaft"/>
In July 1849, the Hungarian Revolutionary Parliament proclaimed and enacted ethnic and minority rights (the next such laws were in Switzerland), but these were overturned after the Russian and Austrian armies crushed the Hungarian Revolution. After the Kingdom of Hungary reached the Compromise with the Habsburg Dynasty in 1867, one of the first acts of its restored Parliament was to pass a Law on Nationalities (Act Number XLIV of 1868). It was a liberal piece of legislation and offered extensive language and cultural rights. It did not recognize non-Hungarians to have rights to form states with any territorial autonomy.<ref name="suedosteuropa-gesellschaft"/>
"Kompromi Austro-Hongaria tahun 1867" menciptakan persatuan pribadi negara-negara merdeka Hongaria dan Austria, yang terhubung di bawah monarki bersama yang juga memiliki institusi bersama. Mayoritas Hongaria lebih menegaskan identitas mereka di dalam Kerajaan Hongaria, dan hal itu menimbulkan konflik dengan beberapa minoritasnya sendiri. Kekuatan kekaisaran penutur Bahasa Jerman yang menguasai setengah Austria dibenci oleh orang lain. Selain itu, munculnya nasionalisme di Rumania dan Serbia yang baru merdeka juga turut andil dalam masalah etnis di kekaisaran.
The "Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867" created the personal union of the independent states of Hungary and Austria, linked under a common monarch also having joint institutions. The Hungarian majority asserted more of their identity within the Kingdom of Hungary, and it came to conflict with some of her own minorities. The imperial power of German-speakers who controlled the Austrian half was resented by others. In addition, the emergence of nationalism in the newly independent Romania and Serbia also contributed to ethnic issues in the empire.
ArticlePasal 19 of"Undang-Undang the 1867Dasar Negara"Basic Statetahun Act"1867 ( ''Staatsgrundgesetz'' ), validhanya onlyberlaku foruntuk thebagian CisleithanianCisleithania (AustrianAustria) partdari of Austria–HungaryAustria–Hongaria, <ref name="verfassungen:0" /> said menyatakan:
{{blockquote|All races of the empire have equal rights, and every race has an inviolable right to the preservation and use of its own nationality and language. The equality of all customary languages ("{{lang|de|landesübliche Sprachen}}") in school, office and public life, is recognized by the state. In those territories in which several races dwell, the public and educational institutions are to be so arranged that, without applying compulsion to learn a second country language ("{{lang|de|Landessprache}}"), each of the races receives the necessary means of education in its own language.{{sfn|Headlam|1911|p=39}}}}
{{blockquote|Semua ras kekaisaran memiliki hak yang sama, dan setiap ras memiliki hak yang tidak dapat diganggu gugat atas pelestarian dan penggunaan kebangsaan dan bahasanya sendiri. Kesetaraan semua bahasa adat (" landesübliche Sprachen ") di sekolah, kantor, dan kehidupan publik, diakui oleh negara. Di wilayah-wilayah di mana beberapa ras tinggal, lembaga publik dan pendidikan harus diatur sedemikian rupa sehingga, tanpa menerapkan paksaan untuk mempelajari bahasa negara kedua (" Landessprache "), masing-masing ras menerima sarana pendidikan yang diperlukan dalam bahasanya sendiri. {{sfn|Headlam|1911|p=39}}}}
The implementation of this principle led to several disputes, as it was not clear which languages could be regarded as "customary". The Germans, the traditional bureaucratic, capitalist and cultural elite, demanded the recognition of their language as a customary language in every part of the empire. German nationalists, especially in the [[Sudetenland]] (part of Bohemia), looked to Berlin in the new German Empire.<ref>Solomon Wank and Barbara Jelavich, "The Impact of the Dual Alliance on the Germans in Austria and Vice-Versa," ''East Central Europe'' (1980) 7#2 pp 288–309</ref> There was a German-speaking element in Austria proper (west of Vienna), but it did not display much sense of German nationalism. That is, it did not demand an independent state; rather it flourished by holding most of the high military and diplomatic offices in the Empire.
Penerapan prinsip ini menimbulkan beberapa perselisihan, karena tidak jelas bahasa mana yang dapat dianggap sebagai "adat". Orang Jerman, elit birokratis, kapitalis, dan budaya tradisional, menuntut pengakuan bahasa mereka sebagai bahasa adat di setiap bagian kekaisaran. Kaum nasionalis Jerman, khususnya di Sudetenland (bagian dari Bohemia), melihat ke Berlin dalam Kekaisaran Jerman yang baru. <ref name=":0" /> Ada elemen berbahasa Jerman di Austria (sebelah barat Wina), tetapi tidak menunjukkan banyak rasa nasionalisme Jerman. Artinya, tidak menuntut negara merdeka; melainkan berkembang dengan memegang sebagian besar jabatan tinggi militer dan diplomatik di Kekaisaran.
Italian was regarded as an old "culture language" (''{{lang|de|Kultursprache}}'') by German intellectuals and had always been granted [[Social equality|equal rights]] as an [[official language]] of the Empire, but the Germans had difficulty in accepting the [[Slavic languages]] as equal to their own. On one occasion [[Count Anton Alexander von Auersperg|Count A. Auersperg]] (Anastasius Grün) entered the Diet of [[Carniola]] carrying what he claimed to be the whole [[text corpus|corpus]] of [[Slovene literature]] under his arm; this was to demonstrate that the [[Slovene language]] could not be substituted for German as the language of higher education.
Bahasa Italia dianggap sebagai "bahasa budaya" kuno ( ''Kultursprache'' ) oleh para intelektual Jerman dan selalu diberikan hak yang sama sebagai bahasa resmi Kekaisaran, tetapi Orang Jerman mengalami kesulitan dalam menerima Bahasa Slavia yang setara dengan bahasa mereka sendiri. Pada suatu kesempatan Pangeran A. Auersperg (Anastasius Grün) memasuki Diet of Carniola membawa apa yang dia klaim sebagai seluruh kumpulan literatur Slovenia di bawah lengannya; ini untuk menunjukkan bahwa Bahasa Slovenia tidak dapat menggantikan Bahasa Jerman sebagai bahasa pendidikan tinggi.
The following years saw official recognition of several languages, at least in Austria. From 1867, laws awarded Croatian equal status with Italian in [[Dalmatia]]. From 1882, there was a Slovene majority in the Diet of Carniola and in the capital [[Ljubljana|Laibach (Ljubljana)]]; they replaced German with Slovene as their primary official language. [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria|Galicia]] designated Polish instead of German in 1869 as the customary language of government.
Tahun-tahun berikutnya melihat pengakuan resmi beberapa bahasa, setidaknya di Austria. Sejak tahun 1867, undang-undang memberikan Bahasa Kroasia status yang sama dengan Bahasa Italia di Dalmatia . Sejak tahun 1882, terdapat mayoritas orang Slovenia di Dewan Carniola dan di ibu kota Laibach (Ljubljana) ; mereka mengganti Bahasa Jerman dengan bahasa Slovenia sebagai bahasa resmi utama mereka. Galicia menetapkan Bahasa Polandia alih-alih bahasa Jerman pada tahun 1869 sebagai bahasa umum pemerintahan.
In [[Margraviate of Istria|Istria]], the [[Istro-Romanians]], a small ethnic group composed by around 2,600 people in the 1880s,<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://dspace.bcucluj.ro/bitstream/123456789/8180/1/BCUCLUJ_FP_279996_1890_021_001.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://dspace.bcucluj.ro/bitstream/123456789/8180/1/BCUCLUJ_FP_279996_1890_021_001.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Transilvania|first=Vincențiu|last=Nicoară|journal=Asociația Transilvană Pentru Literatura Română și Cultura Poporului Român|year=1890|pages=3–9|language=ro}}</ref> suffered severe discrimination. The Croats of the region, who formed the majority, tried to assimilate them, while the Italian minority supported them in their requests for self-determination.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/romania21pariuoft|title=Romania. Recueil trimestriel consacré à l'étude des langes et des littératures romanes|first=Gustav|last=Weigand|publisher=Émile Bouillon|year=1892|pages=240–256|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=emosAQAAIAAJ|title=O istorie a Românilor din Peninsula Balcanică: secolul XVIII-XX|first=Gheorghe|last=Zbuchea|publisher=Biblioteca Bucureștilor|location=Bucharest|year=1999|isbn=978-973-98918-8-2|language=ro}}</ref> In 1888, the possibility of opening the first school for the Istro-Romanians teaching in the Romanian language was discussed in the [[Diet of Istria]]. The proposal was very popular among them. The Italian [[deputies]] showed their support, but the Croat ones opposed it and tried to show that the Istro-Romanians were in fact Slavs.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dialectele române din Istria |first=Iosif |last=Popovici |volume=9 |location=[[Halle an der Saale]] |year=1914 |language=ro |pages=21–32}}</ref> During Austro-Hungarian rule, the Istro-Romanians lived under [[poverty]] conditions,<ref name="istro">{{cite book|url=https://scribd.com/document/377567689/Teodor-T-Burada-O-calatorie-in-satele-romanesti-din-Istria-1896-reed-2003|title=O călătorie prin satele românești din Istria|first=Teodor|last=Burada|publisher=Tipografia Națională|location=Iași|year=1896|pages=119–198}}</ref> and those living in the island of [[Krk]] were fully assimilated by 1875.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326033781|title=Vlachs from the Island Krk in the Primary Historical and Literature Sources|first=Nina|last=Spicijarić Paškvan|journal=Studii și Cercetări – Actele Simpozionului "Banat – Istorie și Multiculturalitate"|year=2014|pages=345–358|language=hr}}</ref>
Di Istria , Istro-Rumania , sebuah kelompok etnis kecil yang terdiri dari sekitar 2.600 orang pada tahun 1880-an, <ref name=":0" /> mengalami diskriminasi yang parah. Orang Kroasia di wilayah itu, yang menjadi mayoritas, mencoba mengasimilasi mereka, sementara minoritas Italia mendukung mereka dalam permintaan penentuan nasib sendiri. <ref name=":0" /> <ref name=":0" /> Pada tahun 1888, kemungkinan membuka sekolah pertama untuk Istro-Rumania yang mengajar dalam Bahasa Rumania dibahas dalam Dewan Istria . Proposal itu sangat populer di antara mereka. Deputi Italia menunjukkan dukungan mereka, tetapi Orang Kroasia menentangnya dan mencoba menunjukkan bahwa Orang Istro-Rumania sebenarnya adalah Orang Slavia. <ref name=":0" />Selama pemerintahan Austro-Hongaria, Orang Istro-Rumania hidup dalam kondisi kemiskinan <ref name=":0" />, dan mereka yang tinggal di pulau Krk berasimilasi sepenuhnya pada tahun 1875. <ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326033781|title=Vlachs from the Island Krk in the Primary Historical and Literature Sources|first=Nina|last=Spicijarić Paškvan|journal=Studii și Cercetări – Actele Simpozionului "Banat – Istorie și Multiculturalitate"|year=2014|pages=345–358|language=hr}}</ref>
The language disputes were most fiercely fought in Bohemia, where the Czech speakers formed a majority and sought equal status for their language to German. The [[Czechs]] had lived primarily in Bohemia since the 6th century and German immigrants had begun settling the Bohemian periphery in the 13th century. The constitution of 1627 made the German language a second official language and equal to Czech. German speakers lost their majority in the Bohemian Diet in 1880 and became a minority to Czech speakers in the cities of [[Prague]] and [[Plzeň|Pilsen]] (while retaining a slight numerical majority in the city of [[Brno|Brno (Brünn)]]). The old [[Charles University in Prague]], hitherto dominated by German speakers, was divided into German and Czech-speaking faculties in 1882.
Sengketa bahasa paling sengit terjadi di Bohemia, di mana penutur Bahasa Ceko menjadi mayoritas dan mencari status yang setara untuk bahasa mereka dengan Bahasa Jerman. Orang Ceko telah tinggal terutama di Bohemia sejak abad ke-6 dan imigran Jerman mulai menetap di pinggiran Bohemia pada abad ke-13. Konstitusi tahun 1627 menjadikan Bahasa Jerman sebagai bahasa resmi kedua dan setara dengan Bahasa Ceko. Penutur Bahasa Jerman kehilangan mayoritasnya dalam Dewan Bohemia pada tahun 1880 dan menjadi minoritas bagi penutur Bahasa Ceko di kota Praha dan Pilsen (sambil mempertahankan sedikit mayoritas di kota Brno (Brünn) ). Universitas Charles tua di Praha, yang sampai sekarang didominasi oleh penutur Bahasa Jerman, dibagi menjadi fakultas berbahasa Jerman dan Ceko pada tahun 1882.
At the same time, Hungarian dominance faced challenges from the local majorities of [[Romanians]] in [[Transylvania]] and in the eastern [[Banat]], [[Slovaks]] in today's [[Slovakia]], and [[Croats]] and [[Serbs]] in the crown lands of [[Croatia]] and of Dalmatia (today's Croatia), in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in the provinces known as the [[Vojvodina]] (today's northern [[Serbia]]). The Romanians and the Serbs began to agitate for union with their fellow nationalists and language speakers in the newly founded states of [[Romania]] (1859–1878) and Serbia.
Pada saat yang sama, dominasi Hongaria menghadapi tantangan dari mayoritas lokal Rumania di Transylvania dan di Banat timur , Slowakia pada hari ini. di Slowakia , dan Kroasia dan Serbia di tanah mahkota Kroasia dan Dalmatia (sekarang Kroasia), di Bosnia dan Herzegovina dan di provinsi-provinsi yang dikenal sebagai Vojvodina ( Serbia utara sekarang ). Orang Rumania dan Serbia mulai melakukan agitasi untuk persatuan dengan sesama nasionalis dan penutur bahasa mereka di negara bagian Rumania yang baru didirikan (1859–1878) dan Serbia.
Hungary's leaders were generally less willing than their Austrian counterparts to share power with their subject minorities, but they granted a large measure of autonomy to Croatia in 1868. To some extent, they modeled their relationship to that kingdom on their own compromise with Austria of the previous year. In spite of nominal autonomy, the Croatian government was an economic and administrative part of Hungary, which the Croatians resented. In the [[Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia]] and Bosnia and Herzegovina many advocated the idea of a [[Trialism in Austria-Hungary|trialist Austro-Hungaro-Croatian]] monarchy; among the supporters of the idea were [[Archduke Leopold Salvator of Austria|Archduke Leopold Salvator]], Archduke Franz Ferdinand and emperor and king [[Charles I of Austria|Charles I]] who during his short reign supported the trialist idea only to be vetoed by the Hungarian government and Count [[Istvan Tisza]]. The count finally signed the trialist proclamation after heavy pressure from the king on 23 October 1918.<ref name="Budisavljević">[[Srđan Budisavljević|Budisavljević, Srđan]], ''Stvaranje-Države-SHS, Creation of the state of SHS'', Zagreb, 1958, p. 132–133.</ref>
Para pemimpin Hongaria pada umumnya kurang bersedia dibandingkan rekan Austria mereka untuk berbagi kekuasaan dengan minoritas subjek mereka, tetapi mereka memberikan otonomi yang besar kepada Kroasia pada tahun 1868. Sampai batas tertentu, mereka mencontohkan hubungan mereka dengan kerajaan itu berdasarkan kompromi mereka sendiri dengan Austria dari tahun sebelumnya. Terlepas dari otonomi nominal, pemerintah Kroasia adalah bagian ekonomi dan administrasi Hongaria, yang dibenci Orang Kroasia. Di Kerajaan Kroasia-Slavonia dan Bosnia dan Herzegovina banyak yang menganjurkan gagasan monarki Austro-Hungaro-Kroasia trialist ; di antara para pendukung gagasan itu adalah Archduke Leopold Salvator , Archduke Franz Ferdinand dan kaisar dan raja Charles Iyang selama masa pemerintahannya yang singkat mendukung gagasan pencoba hanya untuk diveto oleh pemerintah Hongaria dan Pangeran Istvan Tisza . Hitungan tersebut akhirnya menandatangani proklamasi trialist setelah tekanan berat dari raja pada tanggal 23 Oktober 1918. <ref name="Budisavljević">[[Srđan Budisavljević|Budisavljević, Srđan]], ''Stvaranje-Države-SHS, Creation of the state of SHS'', Zagreb, 1958, p. 132–133.</ref>
Language was one of the most contentious issues in Austro-Hungarian politics. All governments faced difficult and divisive hurdles in deciding on the languages of government and of instruction. The minorities sought the widest opportunities for education in their own languages, as well as in the "dominant" languages—Hungarian and German. By the "Ordinance of 5 April 1897", the Austrian Prime Minister [[Count Kasimir Felix Badeni]] gave Czech equal standing with German in the internal government of Bohemia; this led to a crisis because of nationalist German agitation throughout the empire. The Crown dismissed Badeni.
Bahasa adalah salah satu isu yang paling diperdebatkan dalam politik Austro-Hongaria. Semua pemerintah menghadapi rintangan yang sulit dan memecah belah dalam memutuskan bahasa pemerintah dan pengajaran. Kaum minoritas mencari kesempatan seluas-luasnya untuk memperoleh pendidikan dalam bahasa mereka sendiri, juga dalam bahasa-bahasa "dominan"—Hongaria dan Jerman. Dengan "Ordonansi 5 April 1897", Perdana Menteri Austria Count Kasimir Felix Badeni memberikan Ceko kedudukan yang setara dengan Jerman dalam pemerintahan internal Bohemia; ini menyebabkan krisis karena agitasi Jerman nasionalis di seluruh kekaisaran. Mahkota memberhentikan Badeni.
The Hungarian Minority Act of 1868 gave the minorities (Slovaks, Romanians, Serbs, et al.) individual (but not also communal) rights to use their language in offices, schools (although in practice often only in those founded by them and not by the state), courts and municipalities (if 20% of the deputies demanded it). Beginning with the 1879 Primary Education Act and the 1883 Secondary Education Act, the Hungarian state made more efforts to reduce the use of non-Magyar languages, in strong violation of the 1868 Nationalities Law.<ref>Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries, ''A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change, Routledge'', 1998, p. 366.</ref> After 1875, all Slovak language schools higher than elementary were closed, including the only three high schools [[Gymnasium (school)|(gymnasiums)]] in [[Revúca]] (Nagyrőce), [[Martin, Slovakia|Turčiansky Svätý Martin]] (Turócszentmárton) and [[Kláštor pod Znievom]] (Znióváralja). From June 1907, all public and [[private school]]s in Hungary were obliged to ensure that [[Magyarization|after the fourth grade, the pupils could express themselves fluently in Hungarian]]. This led to the further closing of minority schools, devoted mostly to the Slovak and Rusyn languages.
Undang-Undang Minoritas Hungaria tahun 1868 memberikan hak individu (tetapi tidak komunal) kepada minoritas (Slovakia, Rumania, Serbia, et al.) untuk menggunakan bahasa mereka di kantor, sekolah (walaupun dalam praktiknya seringkali hanya di tempat yang didirikan oleh mereka dan bukan oleh negara bagian), pengadilan dan kotamadya (jika 20% dari deputi menuntutnya). Dimulai dengan Undang-Undang Pendidikan Dasar tahun 1879 dan Undang-Undang Pendidikan Menengah tahun 1883, negara Hongaria melakukan lebih banyak upaya untuk mengurangi penggunaan Bahasa non-Magyar, yang sangat melanggar Undang-Undang Kebangsaan tahun 1868. <ref name=":0" /> Setelah tahun 1875, semua sekolah bahasa Slovakia yang lebih tinggi dari sekolah dasar ditutup, termasuk hanya tiga sekolah menengah atas (gimnasium) di Revúca (Nagyrőce), Turčiansky Svätý Martin (Turócszentmárton) dan Kláštor pod Znievom (Znióváralja). Sejak Juni 1907, semua sekolah negeri dan swasta di Hongaria diwajibkan untuk memastikan bahwa setelah kelas empat, para murid dapat berbicara Bahasa Hongaria dengan lancar . Hal ini menyebabkan penutupan lebih lanjut sekolah-sekolah minoritas, yang sebagian besar dikhususkan untuk Bahasa Slovakia dan Rusyn.
The two kingdoms sometimes divided their [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. According to [[Misha Glenny]] in his book, ''The Balkans, 1804–1999'', the Austrians responded to Hungarian support of Czechs by supporting the Croatian national movement in Zagreb.
Kedua kerajaan terkadang membagi wilayah pengaruh mereka . Menurut Misha Glenny dalam bukunya, ''The Balkans, 1804–1999'' , Austria menanggapi dukungan Hongaria terhadap Ceko dengan mendukung gerakan nasional Kroasia di Zagreb.
In recognition that he reigned in a multi-ethnic country, Emperor Franz Joseph spoke (and used) German, Hungarian and Czech fluently, and Croatian, Serbian, Polish and Italian to some degree.
Sebagai pengakuan bahwa ia memerintah di negara multi-etnis, Kaisar Franz Joseph berbicara (dan menggunakan) Bahasa Jerman, Hongaria, dan Ceko dengan lancar, dan Kroasia, Serbia, Polandia, dan Italia sampai taraf tertentu.
====Jews====
[[File:Orthodox Jews in Leopoldstadt 1915.JPG|thumb|Orthodox Jews from [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria|Galicia]] in [[Leopoldstadt]], Vienna, 1915]] ▼
==== '''Yahudi''' ====
Around 1900, Jews numbered about two million in the whole territory of the Austro-Hungarian Empire;<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vital|first1=David|title=A People Apart: A Political History of the Jews in Europe 1789–1939|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=299|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZmSV0c0f5MC&pg=PA299|isbn=978-0-19-821980-4}}</ref> their position was ambiguous. The [[populism|populist]] and [[antisemitism|antisemitic]] politics of the [[Christian Social Party (Austria)|Christian Social Party]] are sometimes viewed as a model for [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazism]].<ref>Fareed Zacharia, ''The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad'', Norton, 2003, 2007, p. 60</ref> Antisemitic parties and movements existed, but the governments of Vienna and Budapest did not initiate [[pogroms]] or implement official antisemitic policies.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} They feared that such [[ethnic violence]] could ignite other [[minority group|ethnic minorities]] and escalate out of control. The antisemitic parties remained on the periphery of the political sphere due to their low popularity among voters in the parliamentary elections.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}
▲[[File:Orthodox Jews in Leopoldstadt 1915.JPG|thumb| OrthodoxYahudi JewsKristen fromOrtodoks [[Kingdom ofdari Galicia anddi Lodomeria|Galicia]]Leopoldstadt in [[Leopoldstadt]], ViennaWina, 1915]]
Sekitar tahun 1900, Orang Yahudi berjumlah sekitar dua juta orang di seluruh wilayah Kekaisaran Austro-Hongaria; <ref name=":0" /> posisi mereka ambigu. Politik populis dan antisemit dari Partai Sosial Kristen terkadang dipandang sebagai model Fasisme Adolf Hitler . <ref name=":0" /> Partai dan gerakan antisemit ada, tetapi pemerintah Wina dan Budapest tidak memulai pogrom atau menerapkan kebijakan antisemit resmi. <sup>[ ''rujukan?'' ]</sup> Mereka khawatir kekerasan etnis semacam itu dapat menyulut etnis minoritas lainnyadan meningkat di luar kendali. Partai-partai antisemit tetap berada di pinggiran lingkup politik karena popularitas mereka yang rendah di kalangan pemilih dalam pemilihan parlemen. <sup>[ ''butuh rujukan'' ]</sup> {{citation needed|date=September 2013}}
In that period, the majority of Jews in Austria–Hungary lived in small towns (''[[shtetls]]'') in [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria|Galicia]] and rural areas in Hungary and Bohemia; however, they had large communities and even local majorities in the downtown districts of Vienna, Budapest, Prague, Kraków and [[Lwów]]. Of the pre-World War I military forces of the major European powers, the Austro-Hungarian army was almost alone in its regular promotion of Jews to positions of command.{{sfn|Rothenberg|1976|p=118}} While the Jewish population of the lands of the Dual Monarchy was about 5%, Jews made up nearly 18% of the reserve officer corps.{{sfn|Rothenberg|1976|p=128}} Thanks to the modernity of the constitution and to the benevolence of emperor Franz Joseph, the Austrian Jews came to regard the era of Austria–Hungary as a golden era of their history.<ref>David S. Wyman, Charles H. Rosenzveig: ''The World Reacts to the Holocaust''. (page 474)</ref> By 1910 about 900,000 religious{{clarify|date=August 2022| At the time, Judaism, particularly in this region, were undergoing a period of polarization where the population that identified as Jewish was split between notably discernible secular vs religious denominations}} Jews made up approximately 5% of the population of Hungary and about 23% of Budapest's citizenry. Jews accounted for 54% of commercial business owners, 85% of financial institution directors and owners in banking, and 62% of all employees in commerce,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/hungary/25.htm|title=Hungary – Social Changes|publisher=Countrystudies.us|access-date=19 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014133338/http://countrystudies.us/hungary/25.htm|archive-date=14 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> 20% of all general grammar school students, and 37% of all commercial scientific grammar school students, 31.9% of all engineering students, and 34.1% of all students in human faculties of the universities. Jews were accounted for 48.5% of all physicians,<ref>{{cite web|author=László Sebők|year=2012|title=A magyarországi zsidók a számok tükrében|trans-title=The Jews in Hungary in the light of the numbers|language=hu|url=http://www.rubicon.hu/magyar/oldalak/a_magyarorszagi_zsidok_a_szamok_tukreben|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220144745/http://www.rubicon.hu/magyar/oldalak/a_magyarorszagi_zsidok_a_szamok_tukreben/|archive-date=20 February 2015}}</ref> and 49.4% of all lawyers/jurists in Hungary.<ref>{{cite web|editor1=Victor Karady |editor2=Peter Tibor Nagy |title=The numerus clausus in Hungary|year=2012|page=42|url=http://mek.oszk.hu/11100/11109/11109.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://mek.oszk.hu/11100/11109/11109.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> Note: The numbers of Jews were reconstructed from religious censuses. They did not include the people of Jewish origin who had converted to Christianity, or the number of atheists.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}} Among many Hungarian parliament members of Jewish origin, the most famous Jewish members in Hungarian political life were [[Vilmos Vázsonyi]] as Minister of Justice, [[Samu Hazai]] as Minister of War, [[János Teleszky]] as minister of finance, [[János Harkányi]] as minister of trade, and [[József Szterényi]] as minister of trade.
Pada periode itu, mayoritas Orang Yahudi di Austria–Hongaria tinggal di kota-kota kecil ( ''shtetls'' ) di Galicia dan daerah pedesaan di Hongaria dan Bohemia; namun, mereka memiliki komunitas besar dan bahkan mayoritas lokal di distrik pusat kota Wina, Budapest, Praha, Kraków, dan Lwów . Dari pasukan militer pra-Perang Dunia I dari kekuatan besar Eropa, tentara Austro-Hongaria hampir sendirian dalam mempromosikan Orang Yahudi secara teratur ke posisi komando. <ref name=":0" /> Sementara populasi Yahudi di tanah Dual Monarchy sekitar 5%, Yahudi merupakan hampir 18% dari korps perwira cadangan. <ref name=":0" /> Berkat modernitas konstitusi dan kebajikan kaisar Franz Joseph, Orang Yahudi Austria menganggap era Austria–Hongaria sebagai era emas dalam sejarah mereka. <ref name=":0" /> Pada tahun 1910 sekitar 900.000 agama <sup>[ ''perlu klarifikasi'']</sup> Yahudi terdiri sekitar 5% dari populasi Hungaria dan sekitar 23% dari warga Budapest. Orang Yahudi menyumbang 54% dari pemilik bisnis komersial, 85% dari direktur dan pemilik lembaga keuangan di perbankan, dan 62% dari semua karyawan dalam perdagangan, <ref name=":0" />20% dari semua siswa sekolah tata bahasa umum, dan 37% dari semua siswa sekolah tata bahasa ilmiah komersial, 31,9% dari semua siswa teknik, dan 34,1% dari semua siswa di fakultas manusia di universitas. Orang Yahudi menyumbang 48,5% dari semua dokter, <ref name=":0" /> dan 49,4% dari semua pengacara/ahli hukum di Hungaria. <ref name=":0" /> Catatan: Jumlah Orang Yahudi direkonstruksi dari sensus agama. Mereka tidak memasukkan orang-orang asal Yahudi yang telah menjadi Kristen, atau sejumlah Ateis. <sup>[ ''rujukan?'' ]</sup> Di antara banyak anggota parlemen Hongaria yang berasal dari Yahudi, anggota Yahudi yang paling terkenal dalam kehidupan politik Hongaria adalah Vilmos Vázsonyi sebagai Menteri Kehakiman, Samu Hazaisebagai Menteri Perang, János Teleszky sebagai Menteri Keuangan, János Harkányi sebagai Menteri Perdagangan, dan József Szterényi sebagai Menteri Perdagangan.
== Hubungan Etnis ==
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