Negara-negara Tentara Salib: Perbedaan antara revisi

'''Negara-negara Tentara Salib''', yang juga dikenal dengan sebutan '''Outremer''', adalah empat negara Kristen Katolik di Timur Tengah yang berdiri dari tahun 1098 sampai 1291. [[Pemerintahan|Negara-negara]] [[Feodalisme|feodal]] ini didirikan oleh para panglima Tentara Salib [[Gereja Latin|Katolik Latin]] pada [[Perang Salib Pertama|Perang Salib I]] melalui [[penaklukan]] dan intrik politik. Keempat negara tersebut adalah [[County Edessa|Kabupaten Edesa]] (tahun 1098{{ndash}}1150), [[Kepangeranan Antiokhia]] (tahun 1098{{ndash}}1287), [[Comitatus Tripolitanus|Kabupaten Tripoli]] (tahun 1102{{ndash}}1289), dan [[Kerajaan Yerusalem]] (tahun 1099{{ndash}}1291). Kerajaan Yerusalem berdaulat atas kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah negara [[Israel]] dan [[Negara Palestina|Palestina]], daerah [[Tepi Barat]], daerah [[Jalur Gaza]], dan daerah-daerah sekitarnya. Tiga negara selebihnya berada di utara, dan berdaulat atas kawasan pesisir yang kini menjadi wilayah negara [[Suriah]], kawasan tenggara wilayah [[Turki]], dan wilayah negara [[Libanon]]. Sebutan "negara-negara Tentara Salib" bisa saja menimbulkan kesalahpahaman, karena dari tahun 1130 hanya segelintir dari populasi orang Peringgi yang menjadi anggota pasukan Tentara Salib. Istilah "Outremer", yang digunakan para penulis Abad Pertengahan maupun zaman modern sebagai sinonimnya, berasal dari istilah Prancis yang berarti ''tanah seberang''.

 

 

Kajian negara-negara Tentara Salib sebagai suatu bidang kajian mandiri, alih-alih sebagai cabang kajian [[Perang Salib]], muncul pada abad ke-19 di [[Prancis]] sebagai analogi kiprah kolonial Prancis di [[Levant|Levans]]. Para sejarawan abad ke-20 menolak kajian tersebut. Menurut pandangan konsensus mereka, [[Orang Franka#Warisan sejarah|orang Peringgi]], yakni orang-orang Eropa Barat, merupakan golongan minoritas yang tinggal di kota-kota, terisolasi dari masyarakat pribumi, dan memiliki tatanan kehakiman maupun keagamaan sendiri. Masyarakat pribumi adalah masyarakat Kristen dan Muslim penutur [[bahasa Arab]], [[bahasa Yunani|Yunani]], dan [[bahasa Suryani|Suryani]].

Sebelum menghembuskan nafas terakhir, Raja Balduinus II menetapkan Fulko, Melisenda, dan putra belia mereka yang bernama [[Baudouin III dari Yerusalem|Balduinus]] bersama-sama menjadi ahli warisnya. Fulko ingin membatalkan ketetapan tersebut, tetapi kecenderungannya untuk menganakemaskan rekan-rekan sedaerah asal menimbulkan penentangan hebat terhadap dirinya di Kerajaan Yerusalem. Pada tahun 1134, Fulko memadamkan pemberontakan [[Hugues II dari Jaffa|Hugo II, Bupati Yafo]], salah seorang kerabat Melisenda, tetapi tetap tidak berdaya melanggar ketetapan mendiang raja. Ia juga menghalang-halangi upaya berulang adik iparnya, Putri Alisia, untuk menjadi pemangku takhta Antiokhia, antara lain dengan memerangi [[Pons dari Tripoli|Ponsius Bupati Tripoli]] dan [[Joscelin II dari Edessa|Yoselinus II Bupati Edesa]].{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=149, 151–155}} Kelemahan Antiokhia dimanfaatkan [[Leo I, Pangeran Armenia|Leo]], seorang bangsawan [[Kerajaan Armenia Kilikia|Armenia Kilikia]], untuk merebut dataran Kilikia.{{sfn|Lilie|2004|pp=105–106}}<!-- In 1133, the Antiochene nobility asked Fulk to propose a husband for Constance, and he selected [[Raymond of Poitiers]], a younger son of [[William&nbsp;IX of Aquitaine]]. Raymond finally arrived in Antioch three years later and married Constance.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=153, 168}} He reconquered parts of Cilicia from the Armenians.{{sfn|Lilie|2004|pp=106–107}} In 1137, Pons was killed battling the Damascenes, and Zengi invaded Tripoli. Fulk intervened, but Zengi's troops captured Pons' successor [[Raymond II, Count of Tripoli|Raymond{{nbsp}}II]], and besieged Fulk in the border castle of [[Montferrand (crusader castle)|Montferrand]]. Fulk surrendered the castle and paid Zengi 50,000{{nbsp}}dinars for his and Raymond's freedom.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=165–170}} Emperor Alexios' son and successor, [[John&nbsp;II Komnenos]], reasserted Byzantine claims to Cilicia and Antioch. His military campaign compelled Raymond of Poitiers to give homage and agree that he would surrender Antioch by way of compensation if the Byzantines ever captured Aleppo, [[Homs]], and Shaizar for him. {{sfn|Lilie|2004|pp=120–122}} The following year the Byzantines and Franks jointly besieged Aleppo and Shaizar but could not take the towns. Zengi soon seized Homs from the Damascenes, but a koalisi Damsyik–Yerusalem prevented his southward expansion.{{sfn|Cobb|2016|pp=133–134}}

 

 

The fall of Edessa shocked Western opinion, prompting the largest military response since the First Crusade. The [[Second Crusade|new crusade]] consisted of two great armies led overland by [[Louis&nbsp;VII of France]] and [[Conrad&nbsp;III of Germany]], arriving in [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] in 1148. The arduous march had greatly reduced the two rulers' forces. At a leadership conference, including the widowed Melisende and her son Baldwin{{nbsp}}III, they agreed to [[Siege of Damascus (1148)|attack Damascus]] rather than attempt to recover distant Edessa. The attack on Damascus ended in a humiliating defeat and retreat.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=184–190}} Scapegoating followed the unexpected failure, with many westerners blaming the Franks. Fewer crusaders came from Europe to fight for the Holy Land in the next decades.{{sfn|Tyerman|2007|pp=336–337}} Raymond of Poitiers joined forces with the Nizari and Joscelin with the Rum Seljuks against Aleppo. Nur ad-Din invaded Antioch and Raymond was [[Battle of Inab|defeated and killed]] at [[Inab]] in 1149.{{sfn|Köhler|2013|pp=161–162}} The next year Joscelin was captured and tortured and later died. [[Beatrice of Saone]], his wife, sold the remains of the County of Edessa to the Byzantines with Baldwin's consent. Already 21 and eager to rule alone, Baldwin forced Melisende's retirement in 1152. In Antioch, Constance resisted pressure to remarry until 1153 when she chose the French nobleman [[Raynald of Châtillon]] as her second husband.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=195–199, 206}}

Upholding the balance of power in Syria was apparently Raymond's main concern during his regency. When Saladin besieged Aleppo in 1174, Raymond led a relief army to the city; next year, when a united Zengid army invaded Saladin's realm, he signed a truce with Saladin.{{sfn|Köhler|2013|pp=217–220}} Gümüshtekin released Raynald of Châtillon and Baldwin's maternal uncle, [[Joscelin&nbsp;III of Courtenay]], for a large ransom. They hastened to Jerusalem, and Raynald seized [[Oultrejourdain]] by marrying [[Stephanie of Milly]]. As Baldwin, a leper, was not expected to father children, his sister's marriage was to be arranged before his inevitable premature death from the disease. His regent, Raymond, chose [[William of Montferrat, Count of Jaffa and Ascalon|William of Montferrat]] for Sybilla's husband. William was the cousin of both [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Frederick Barbarossa]] and Louis{{nbsp}}VII of France. In 1176, Baldwin reached the age of 15 and majority, ending Raymond's regency. He revisited plans for an invasion of Egypt and renewed his father's pact with the Byzantines. Manuel dispatched a fleet of 70 galleys plus support ships to Outremer. As William had died, and Baldwin's health was deteriorating, the Franks offered the regency and the Egyptian invasion's command to Baldwin's crusader cousin [[Philip&nbsp;I, Count of Flanders]]. He wanted to be free to return to Flanders and rejected both offers.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=266–269}}{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=103–104}} The plan for the invasion was abandoned, and the Byzantine fleet sailed for Constantinople.{{sfn|Lilie|2004|pp=215–216}}

 

 

[[File:Saladin Guy.jpg|thumb| right| alt=13th century drawing of mounted warriors fighting| Saladin and Guy fight from a 13th-century manuscript of [[Matthew Paris]]'s chronicle]]

Saladin signed a four-year truce with Jerusalem and attacked Mosul. He could not capture the city but extracted an oath of fealty from Mosul's Zengid ruler, [[Izz al-Din Mas'ud]], in March 1186. A few months later, Baldwin{{nbsp}}V died, and a power struggle began in Jerusalem. Raymond summoned the barons to [[Nablus]] to a general council. In his absence, Sybilla's supporters, led by Joscelin and Raynald, took full control of Jerusalem, Acre and Beirut. Patriarch [[Heraclius of Jerusalem]] crowned her queen and appointed Guy her co-ruler. The barons assembling at Nablus offered the crown to Isabella's husband [[Humphrey&nbsp;IV of Toron]], but he submitted to Sybilla to avoid a civil war. After his desertion, all the barons but [[Baldwin of Ibelin]] and Raymond swore fealty to the royal couple. Baldwin went into exile, and Raymond forged an alliance with Saladin. Raynald seized another caravan, which violated the truce and prompted Saladin to assemble his forces for the jihād. Raymond allowed Muslim troops to pass through Galilee to raid around Acre. His shock at the Frankish defeat in the resulting [[Battle of Cresson]] brought him to reconciliation with Guy.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=290–299}}{{sfn|Tyerman|2007|pp=364–367}}

 

 

 

=== Pemulihan dan perang saudara (tahun 1189 sampai 1243) ===

After an [[Attrition warfare|attritional]] siege, the Muslim garrison surrendered Acre, and Philip and most of the French army returned to Europe. Richard led the crusade [[Battle of Arsuf|to victory]] at [[Arsuf]], capturing Jaffa, Ascalon and [[Darum]]. Internal dissension forced Richard to abandon Guy and accept Conrad's kingship. Guy was compensated with possession of Cyprus. In April 1192, Conrad was assassinated in Tyre. Within a week, the widowed Isabella was married to [[Henry II, Count of Champagne|Henry, Count of Champagne]].{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=330–338}} Saladin did not risk a defeat in a pitched battle, and Richard feared the exhausting march across arid lands towards Jerusalem. As he fell ill and needed to return home to attend to his affairs, a three-year truce was agreed in September 1192. The Franks kept land between Tyre and Jaffa, but dismantled Ascalon; Christian pilgrimages to Jerusalem were allowed. Frankish confidence in the truce was not high. In April 1193, [[Geoffroy de Donjon]], head of the Kesatria Panti Husada, wrote in a letter, 'We know for certain that since the loss of the land the inheritance of Christ cannot easily be regained. The land held by the Christians during the truces remains virtually uninhabited.'{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=353–354}}{{sfn|Cobb|2016|pp=203–204}} The Franks' strategic position was not necessarily detrimental: they kept the coastal towns and their frontiers shortened. Their enclaves represented a minor threat to the Ayyubids' empire in comparison with the Artuqids, Zengids, Seljuks of Rum, Cilician Armenians or [[Georgians]] in the north. After Saladin died in March 1193, none of his sons could assume authority over his [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] relatives, and the dynastic feud lasted for almost a decade.{{sfn|Cobb|2016|pp=203–204}}{{sfn|Holt|1986|pp=60–62}} The Ayyubids agreed near-constant truces with the Franks and offered territorial concessions to keep the peace.{{sfn|Köhler|2013|pp=269–270}}

 

 

[[File:BritLibRoyal14CVIIFol123FredIIAndIsabellaWed.jpg|thumb|alt=13th-century manuscript depicting the marriage of Frederick and Isabella |right|A 13th-century manuscript of the marriage of Frederick and Isabella]]

 

[[File:Krak des Chevaliers 01.jpg|thumb|alt=Modern photograph of Krak des Chevaliers castle| [[Krak des Chevaliers]]]]

In 1268, the new Sicilian king [[Charles&nbsp;I of Anjou]] executed [[Conradin]], the titular king of Jerusalem, in Naples after his victory [[Battle of Tagliacozzo|at Tagliacozzo]].{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|p=353}} Isabella&nbsp;I's great grandson [[Hugh&nbsp;III of Cyprus]] and her granddaughter [[Maria of Antioch (pretender)|Maria of Antioch]] disputed the succession. The barons preferred Hugh, but in 1277 Maria sold her claim to Charles. He sent [[Roger of San Severino]] to act as {{lang|fr|bailli}}. With the support of the Templars, he blocked Hugh's access to Acre, forcing him to retreat to Cyprus, again leaving the kingdom without a resident monarch.{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=240–241}} The Mongols of the Ilkhanate sent embassies to Europe proposing anti-Mamluk alliances, but the major western rulers were reluctant to launch a new crusade for the Holy Land. The [[War of the Sicilian Vespers]] weakened Charles's position in the west. After his death in 1285, [[Henry&nbsp;II of Cyprus]] was acknowledged as Jerusalem's nominal king, but the rump kingdom was in fact a mosaic of autonomous lordships, some under Mamluk suzerainty.{{sfn|Tyerman |2007|pp=816–818}} In 1285, the death of the warlike {{lang|tk|Ilkhan}} [[Abaqa Khan|Abaqa]], combined with the Pisan and Venetian wars with the Genoese, finally gave the Mamluk sultan, [[Al-Mansur Qalawun]], the opportunity to expel the Franks. In 1289 he [[Fall of Tripoli (1289)|destroyed]] Genoese-held Tripoli, enslaving or killing its residents. In 1290, Italian crusaders broke his truce with Jerusalem by killing Muslim traders in Acre. Qalawun's death did not hinder the successful Mamluk [[Siege of Acre (1291)|siege of the city]] in 1291. Those who could fled to Cyprus, while those who could not were slaughtered or sold into slavery. Without hope of support from the West, Tyre, Beirut, and Sidon all surrendered without a fight. The Mamluk policy was to destroy all physical evidence of the Franks; the destruction of the ports and fortified towns ruptured the history of a [[littoral zone|coastal]] city civilisation rooted in antiquity.{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=241–243}}