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<!--Following the [[Black Death]], the initial loss of life due to famine, plague, and pestilence, contributed to an intensification of capital accumulation in the urban areas, and thus a stimulus to trade, industry, and burgeoning urban growth in fields as diverse as banking (the [[Fugger]] banking family in [[Augsburg]] being the most prominent), textiles, [[Weapon|armaments]], especially stimulated by the [[Hundred Years War]], and mining of iron ore due, in large part, to the booming armaments industry. Accumulation of surplus, competitive [[overproduction]], and heightened competition to maximize economic advantage, contributed to civil war, aggressive [[militarism]], and thus centralization. As a direct result of the move toward centralization, leaders like [[Louis XI of France]] (1461-1483), the “spider king,” sought to remove all constitutional restrictions on the exercise of their authority. In [[England]], [[France]], and [[Spain]] the move toward centralization begun in the thirteenth century was carried to a successful conclusion.
But as recovery and prosperity progressed, enabling the population to reach its former levels in the late <b>fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,</b> the combination of both a newly abundant labor supply as well as improved productivity, were mixed blessings for many segments of Western European society. Despite tradition, landlords started the move to exclude [[peasant]]s from [[common land]]s. With trade stimulated, landowners increasingly moved away from the [[Manorialism|manorial]] economy. Woolen manufacturing greatly expanded in [[France]], [[Germany]], and the [[Netherlands]] and new textile industries began to develop. Euro
The humanism of the Renaissance stimulated unprecedented academic ferment, and a concern for [[academic freedom]]. Ongoing, earnest theoretical debates occurred in the universities about the nature of the church, and the source and extent of the authority of the papacy, of councils, and of princes.
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=== Mulainya Reformasi [[abad ke-16]] ===
* [[Martin Luther]], [[Johann Tetzel]], [[Philipp Melanchthon]], [[Indulgensia]], ''[[95 Tesis]]'', [[Nicolaus Von Amsdorf]]
* ''[[Exsurge Domine]]'', [[Diet of Worms]] ([[1521]]), [[Perang Petani]]
* [[Ulrich Zwingli]] dan [[Zürich]]
* [[Yohanes Calvin]] dan [[Geneva]]
* [[John Knox]] dan [[Skotlandia]]
* Reformator radikal -- [[Thomas_Muentzer|Müntzer]], [[Anabaptis]], [[Menno Simons]]
* Reformasi di [[Perancis]] -- [[Huguenot]], [[Pierre Viret]]
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Protestants generally trace their separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the [[16th century]], which is sometimes called the ''magisterial Reformation'' because the movement received support from the magistrates, the ruling authorities (as opposed to the ''radical Reformation'', which had no state sponsorship). The protest erupted suddenly, in many places at once but particularly in Germany, during a time of threatened [[Islam]]ic invasion[[#Footnotes|¹]] which distracted German princes in particular. To some degree, the protest can be explained by the events of the previous two centuries in Western Europe.
The protest began in earnest when [[Martin Luther]], an Augustinian monk and professor at the University of Wittenberg, called in [[1517]] for reopening of debate on the sale of [[indulgence]]s. (Tradition holds that he nailed his [[95 theses]] to the door of the Wittenberg Castle's Church, which served as a pin board for university-related announcements.) Luther's dissent marked a sudden outbreak with new and irresistible force of discontent which had been pushed underground but not resolved; the quick spread of discontent occurred to a large degree because of the [[printing press]] and the resulting swift movement of both ideas and documents (such as the 95 Theses).
Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of [[Huldrych Zwingli]]. These two movements quickly agreed on most issues, as the recently introduced [[printing press]] spread ideas rapidly from place to place, but some unresolved differences kept them separate. Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative, and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day [[Anabaptist]]s. Other Protestant movements grew up along lines of mysticism or humanism ([[cf.]] [[Erasmus]]), sometimes breaking from Rome or from the Protestants, or forming outside of the churches.
After this first stage of the Reformation, following the [[excommunication]] of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of [[John Calvin]] were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. The separation of the [[Church of England]] from Rome under [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], beginning in [[1529]] and completed in [[1536]], brought England alongside the Reformation; however, change in England proceeded more conservatively than elsewhere in Europe and alternated between traditional and Protestant sympathies for centuries, progressively forging a stable compromise.
===Humanism to Protestantism===
The frustrated reformism of the humanists, ushered in by the [[Renaissance]], contributed to a growing impatience among reformers. [[Erasmus]] and later figures like [[Martin Luther|Luther]] and [[Zwingli]] would emerge from this debate and eventually contribute to the second major schism of Christendom. Unfortunately for the church, the crisis of theology beginning with [[William of Ockham]] in the fourteenth century was occurring in conjunction with the new [[burgher]] discontent. Since the breakdown of the [[philosophy|philosophical]] foundations of [[scholasticism]], the new [[nominalism]] did not bode well for an institutional church legitimized as an intermediary between man and God. New thinking favored the notion that no religious [[doctrine]] can be supported by philosophical arguments, eroding the old alliance between [[reason]] and [[faith]] of the medieval period laid out by [[Thomas Aquinas]].
The major individualistic reform movements that revolted against medieval scholasticism and the institutions that underpinned it were: [[humanism]], [[devotionalism]], and the observatine tradition. In [[Germany]], “the modern way” or devotionalism caught on in the universities, requiring a redefinition of God, who was no longer a rational governing principle but an arbitrary, unknowable will that cannot be limited. God was now an unknowable absolute ruler, and religion would be more fervent and emotional. Thus, the ensuing revival of [[Augustinian]] theology, stating that man cannot be saved by his own efforts but only by the grace of God, would erode the legitimacy of the rigid institutions of the church meant to provide a channel for man to do good works and get into [[heaven]]. Humanism, however, was more of an educational reform movement with origins in the [[Renaissance]]'s revival of [[classical education|classical learning]] and thought. A revolt against [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] logic, it placed great emphasis on reforming individuals through eloquence as opposed to reason. The European Renaissance laid the foundation for the Northern humanists in its reinforcement of the traditional use of [[Latin]] as the great unifying cultural language.
The polarization of the scholarly community in Germany over the [[Johannes Reuchlin|Reuchlin]] (1455-1522) affair, attacked by the elite clergy for his study of [[Biblical Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and Jewish texts, brought Luther fully in line with the humanist educational reforms who favored [[academic freedom]]. At the same time, the impact of the Renaissance would soon backfire against Southern Europe, also ushering in an age of reform and a repudiation of much of medieval Latin tradition. Led by Erasmus, the humanists condemned various forms of corruption within the Church, forms of corruption that might not have been any more prevalent than during the medieval zenith of the church. [[Erasmus]] held that true religion was a matter of inward devotion rather than an outward symbol of ceremony and ritual. Going back to ancient texts, scriptures, from this viewpoint the greatest culmination of the ancient tradition, are the guides to life. Favoring [[morality|moral]] reforms and de-emphasizing [[didactic literature|didactic]] ritual, Erasmus laid the groundwork for Luther.
Humanism's intellectual [[anticlericalism]] would profoundly influence Luther. The increasingly well-educated [[middle class|middle]] sectors of Northern Germany, namely the educated community and city dwellers would turn to Luther's rethinking of religion to conceptualize their discontent according to the cultural medium of the era. The great rise of the burghers, the desire to run their new businesses free of institutional barriers or outmoded cultural practices, contributed to the appeal of humanist [[individualism]]. To many, [[pope|papal]] institutions were rigid, especially regarding their views on just price and [[usury]]. In the North burghers and monarchs were united in their frustration for not paying any [[tax|taxes]] to the nation, but collecting taxes from [[Citizenship|subjects]] and sending the revenues disproportionately to the Pope in [[Italy]].
These trends heightened demands for significant reform and revitalization along with anticlericalism. New thinkers began noticing the divide between the priests and the flock. The clergy, for instance, were not always well-educated. Parish priests often did not know [[Latin]] and rural parishes often did not have great opportunities for theological education for many at the time. Due to its large landholdings and institutional rigidity, a rigidity to which the excessively large ranks of the clergy contributed, many [[bishop]]s studied [[law]], not theology, being relegated to the role of property managers trained in administration. While priests emphasized works of religiosity, the respectability of the church began diminishing, especially among well educated [[urbanite]]s, and especially considering the recent strings of political humiliation, such as the apprehension of [[Pope Boniface VIII]] by [[Philip IV of France]], the “Babylonian Captivity,” the [[Western Schism|Great Schism]], and the failure of Conciliar reformism. In a sense, the campaign by [[Pope Leo X]] to raise funds to rebuild the [[Saint Peter's Basilica|St. Peter's Basilica]] was too much of an excess by the secular [[Renaissance]] church, prompting the high-pressure sale of [[indulgences]] that rendered the clerical establishments even more disliked in the cities.
Luther, taking the revival of the [[Augustinian]] notion of [[salvation]] by faith alone to new levels, borrowed from the humanists the sense of individualism, that each man can be his own priest (an attitude likely to find popular support considering the rapid rise of an educated urban middle class in the North), and that the only true authority is the [[Bible]], echoing the reformist zeal of the [[Conciliar movement]] and opening up the debate once again on limiting the authority of the Pope. While his ideas called for the sharp redefinition of the dividing lines between the [[laity]] and the clergy, his ideas were still, by this point, reformist in nature. Luther's contention that the human will was incapable of following good, however, resulted in his rift with Erasmus finally distinguishing Lutheran reformism from [[humanism]].
===Religious Influences for the Reformation===
While there were some parallels between certain movements within humanism and teachings later common among the Reformers, the main influence was the Bible itself. The Roman Catholic Church had itself been the main purveyor in [[Europe]] of humanism for centuries: the neo-Platonism of the scholastics and the neo-Aristotelianism of Thomas Aquinas and his followers had made humanism part of church [[dogma]]. Thus, when Luther and the other reformers adopted the standard of “sola scriptura”, making the Bible the sole measure of theology, that made the Reformation a reaction against the humanism of that time.
Luther himself had been trained as a professor of the Bible and was teaching Bible at the [[University of Wittenberg]] when the Bible changed him. He later lamented that he wished he had learned the Bible earlier instead of spending so much time studying classical humanistic authors as [[Plato]] and Aristotle. It appears that he was not familiar with the writings of earlier people who called for reformation, for example, he did not know the teachings of [[Jan Hus]] until he was introduced to them by a taunt from [[Johann Eck]] that he was teaching the same doctrines.
The Protestants emphasized such concepts as Justification by "faith alone" (not faith plus good works or infused righteousness), "Scripture alone" (that the Bible is the final authority not to be overruled by tradition), "the priesthood of all believers" (eschewing the special authority and power of the Roman Catholic sacramental priesthood), that all people are individually responsible for their status before God such that talk of mediation through any but Christ alone is unbiblical. Because they saw these teachings as stemming from the Bible, they encouraged publication of the Bible in the common language and universal [[education]], for how can people avail themselves of the knowledge of their salvation without the ability to read the Bible?
Part of the revolt was an [[Iconoclasm#Reformation iconoclasm|iconoclasm]], seen in John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli, but particularly amongst the radical reformers. Iconoclastic riots took place in Zürich (in 1523), Copenhagen (1530), Münster (1534), Geneva (1535), Augsburg (1537) and Scotland (1559).
The Reformation did not happen in a vacuum, as there were movements for centuries calling for a return to Biblical teachings, the most famous being from Wyclif and Jan Hus. It is no surprise that their teachings were later found in the Reformation, as they imbibed from the same source.
While it is true that there were calls for religious and doctrinal and moral reformation within and without the institutional church for centuries, apparently it was the invention of the [[printing press]] which allowed quick broadcasting of ideas, the rise in nationalistic fervor and popular discontent at the moral corruption in the church to coalesce in support for a reformation as never before. But the spark that started the Reformation and keeps it going even today is the doctrinal issues brought up by the Bible.
===The [[Radical Reformation]]===
Unskilled laborers and peasants recently squeezed from the countryside embraced the most radical theological options opened up by the religious revolution. Peasants and new migrants to the cities had little understanding of [[economics]], so they had no understanding of the increasingly discredited [[just price]] concept and the influence of [[capitalism]] and [[Mercantilist|mercantilism]]. They believed that higher prices were the result of unjust, parasitic, and immoral behavior.
Discontented and morally righteous, the lower classes were ready to follow leaders, who urged them to band together against immorality and decadence. They preached against landowners who took control of increasing areas, kings centralizing control and princes looking for increased tax revenues to fund their growing states.
The disadvantaged peasantry turned to radical leaders, to people like the [[Drummer of Niklashausen]] and later the [[Anabaptist]] preachers. Many of the Anabaptist preachers belonged to the peasant and laboring class.
The Anabaptists and other radical leaders were condemned by the Lutherans and nationalistic Germans. Nearly every country in Europe saw a flare up of failed peasant revolts motivated by religious concerns and executed according to religious doctrine. The Hungarian Peasants' War (1514), the revolt against [[Charles V]] in [[Spain]] ([[1520]]), the discontent of the lower classes in [[France]] with the excessive taxes levied by [[Louis XI]], and the secret associations which prepared the way for the great [[Peasants' War]] of the lower classes in Germany (1524), show that discontent was not confined to any one country in Europe.
===Lutheranism adopted by the German Territorial Princes===
Luther, like Erasmus, in the beginning favored maintaining the bishops as an elite class for administrative purposes. And while Luther rejected many of the Catholic [[sacrament]]s, as well as salvation by grace alone through both faith and good works (as opposed to the Protestant "faith alone") and indulgences, he firmly upheld the sacraments of [[Baptism]] and the [[Eucharist]]. Luther favored a reformed theology of the [[Eucharist]] called [[consubstantiation]], a doctrine of the presence of Christ in the Eucharist. Traditionally, the consecrated bread and wine were held to become, substantially, the body and blood of Christ ([[transubstantiation]]). Transubstantiation was most fully spelled out by the medieval scholastics. According to the doctrine of consubstantiation, the substances of the body and the blood of Christ and of the bread and the wine were held to coexist together in the consecrated Host.
In fact, Luther, along with his colleague [[Philipp Melanchthon]], emphasized this point in diplomatic plea for the Reformation at the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' in [[1529]] amid charges of [[heresy]]. Once again, though, the church and the emperor squandered their last chance to reform and salvage the old order; the edict by the [[Diet of Worms]] (1521) prohibited all innovations. Meanwhile, in these efforts to remain a Catholic reformer as opposed to a heretical revolutionary, and to appeal to German princes with his religious condemnation of the peasant revolts backed up by the [[Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms]], Luther's growing conservatism would usher in the more radical reformers.
At a religious conference with the Zwinglians in [[1529]], Melanchthon joined with Luther in opposing a union with [[Zwingli]]. There would finally be a schism in the reform movement due to Luther's belief in [[consubstantiation]]. His original intention was not schism, but with the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' of Augsburg (1530) a separate Protestant church finally emerged. In a sense, Luther would take theology further in its deviation from established Catholic dogma, forcing a rift between the humanist Erasmus and Luther. Similarly, Zwingli would further repudiate ritualism, and break with the increasingly conservative Luther.
While it would be an understatement to state that [[Erasmus]], [[Martin Luther|Luther]], [[Zwingli]], and Melanchthon regarded the fundamental theological questions quite seriously, their followers tended to split along socio-economic lines. Luther found great support from the new bourgeoisie in Germany's urban centers to overthrow the power of the landowning aristocracy and the Latin clergy, rooted in their control of land and peasant labor, which were the central means of production of the time. And up-and-coming merchants, not yet part of the ruling elite, rallied to Luther's cause. Zwingli, however, appealed to poorer segments of society who lacked the stake in German proto-nationalism among the ambitious, consolidating princes and the new bourgeoisie.
Aside from the enclosing of the lower classes, the middle sectors of Northern Germany, namely the educated community and city dwellers, would turn to religion to conceptualize their discontent according to the cultural medium of the era. The great rise of the burgers, the desire to run their new businesses free of institutional barriers or outmoded cultural practices contributed to the appeal of individualism. To many, papal institutions were rigid, especially regarding their views on just price and [[usury]]. In the North burgers and monarchs were united in their frustration against for not paying any taxes to the nation, but collecting taxes from subjects and sending the revenues disproportionately to Italy. In Northern Europe Luther appealed to the growing national consciousness of the German states because he denounced the Pope for involvement in politics as well as religion. Moreover, he backed the nobility, which was now justified to crush the Great Peasant Revolt of [[1525]] and to confiscate church property by Luther's [[Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms]]. This explains the attraction of some territorial princes to Lutheranism, especially its Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms. However, the Elector of Brandenburg, Joachim I, blamed Lutheranism for the revolt and so did others. In Brandenburg, it was only under his successor Joachim II that Lutheranism was established, and the old religion was not formally extinct in Brandenburg until the death of the last Catholic bishop there, Georg [[von Blumenthal]].
With the church subordinate to and the agent of civil authority and peasant rebellions condemned on strict religious terms, Lutheranism and German nationalist sentiment were ideally suited to coincide.
Though [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] fought the reformation, it is no coincidence either that the reign of his nationalistic predecessor [[Maximilian I]] saw the beginning of the Reformation. While the centralized states of western Europe had reached accords with the Vatican permitting them to draw on the rich property of the church for government expenditures, enabling them to form state churches that were greatly autonomous of Rome, similar moves on behalf of the Reich were unsuccessful so long as princes and prince bishops fought reforms to drop the pretension of secular universal empire.
==English Reformation==
''See articles at [[:Category:English Reformation]]''
===Political Reformation===
The course of the Reformation was different in England. There had long been a strong strain of anti-clericalism, and England had already given rise to the [[Lollardy|Lollard]] movement, which had inspired the [[Hussite]]s in [[Bohemia]]. By the 1520s, however, the Lollards were not an active force, or, at least, certainly not a mass movement. The different character of the English Reformation came rather from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. Although Henry had once been a sincere Catholic, he found it expedient and profitable to break with the Papacy. In [[1534]] '''The [[Act of Supremacy]]''' put Henry at the head of the church ''in England'' (that is, not the Church of England). Between [[1535]] and [[1540]], under [[Thomas Cromwell]], the policy known as the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]] was put into effect. The veneration of [[Saint]]s, pilgrimages and pilgrim shrines were also attacked. Huge amounts of church land and property passed into the hands of the crown and ultimately into those of the nobility and gentry. The vested interest thus created made for a powerful force in support of the dissolutions.
There were many notable opponents to the Henrician Reformation, such as [[Thomas More]] and Bishop [[John Fisher]], who were executed for their opposition. But there was also a growing party of Protestants who were imbued with the Zwinglian and Calvinistic doctrines now current on the Continent. When Henry was succeeded by his son [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] in [[1547]], they found their views in the ascendant in government. A more radical reformation was imposed, including the abolition of the [[Mass_%28liturgy%29|Mass]], the destruction of images, and the closing of the [[chantry|chantries]]. Following a brief Roman Catholic reaction during the reign of [[Mary I of England|Mary]] [[1553]]-[[1558]], a loose consensus developed during the reign of [[Elizabeth I]], though this point is one of considerable debate among historians. Yet it is the so-called Elizabethan Settlement to which the origins of [[Anglicanism]] are traditionally ascribed. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme [[Calvinism]] on the one hand and [[Arminianism]] on the other, but compared to the bloody and chaotic state of affairs in contemporary France, it was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution or [[English Civil War]] in the seventeenth century.
The success of the [[Counter-Reformation]] on the Continent and the growth of a [[Puritan]] party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarised the [[Elizabethan Age]], although it was not until the [[1640s]] that England underwent religious strife comparable to that which her neighbours had suffered some generations before.
===Early Puritan Movement===
{{Main2|Puritan|English Civil War}}
The early ''Puritan Movement'' (late 16th century-17th century) was [[Reformed]] or [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] and was a movement for reform in the [[Church of England]]. Its origins lay in the discontent with the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]]. The desire was for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially [[Geneva]]. The Puritans objected to ornaments and ritual in the churches as [[idolatry|idolatrous]] (vestments, surplices, organs, genuflection), which they castigated as "[[pope|popish]] pomp and rags." (See [[Vestments controversy]].) They also objected to ecclesiastical courts. They refused to endorse completely all of the ritual directions and formulas of the ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]''; the imposition of its liturgical order by legal force and inspection sharpened Puritanism into a definite opposition movement.
The later Puritan movement were often referred to as [[Dissenters]] and [[Nonconformist]]s and eventually led to the formation of various [[reformed]] [[Christian denomination|denominations]].
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== Sumber ==
=== Sumber cetak ===
*[[Hilaire Belloc|Belloc, Hilaire]] (1928), ''How the Reformation Happened'', Tan Books & Publishing. ISBN 0-89555-465-8 (a Roman Catholic Perspective)
*Braaten, Carl E. and Robert W. Jenson. ''The Catholicity of the Reformation.'' Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996. ISBN 0-8028-4220-8
*Estep, William R. ''Renaissance & Reformaton.'' Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. ISBN 0-8028-0050-5
*Gonzales, Justo. ''The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day''. San Francisco: Harper, 1985. ISBN 0060633166
*Kolb, Robert. ''Confessing the Faith: Reformers Define the Church, 1530-1580.'' St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1991. ISBN 0-570-04556-8
*Spitz, Lewis W. ''The Protestant Reformation: Major Documents.'' St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1997. ISBN 0-570-04993-8
*Spitz, Lewis W. ''The Renaissance and Reformation Movements: Volume I, The Renaissance.'' Revised Edition. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987. ISBN 0-570-03818-9
*Spitz, Lewis W. ''The Renaissance and Reformation Movements: Volume II, The Reformation.'' Revised Edition. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987. ISBN 0-570-03819-7
=== Sumber online ===
==== Bahan bersejarah ====
*Timelines
**[[Detailed_Christian_timeline#Renaissance_and_Reformation|Timeline for Renaissance & Reformation]]
**[[Timeline of the Protestant Reformation in England]]
*[[Middle Ages in history]]
*A list of [[Protestant reformers]]
==== Bahan utama ====
*[http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/web/ninetyfive.html Martin Luther's Ninety-five Theses]
*[[Book of Common Prayer|The Book of Common Prayer]]
*[[The Book of Concord]]
==== Pranala luar ====
*[http://history.hanover.edu/early/prot.html Internet Archive of Related Texts and Documents]
*[http://www.lepg.org/religion.htm A summary of the Reformation]
*[http://www.newgenevacenter.org/west/reformation.htm An Overview of the Protestant Reformation]
[[Category:Protestanisme]]
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