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*{{harvnb|Bamshad|Olson|2003}}</ref> that define [[Wikt:essentiality|essential types]] of individuals based on perceived traits. Scientists consider biological [[essentialism]] obsolete,<ref name="Sober"/> and generally discourage racial explanations for collective differentiation in both physical and behavioral traits.<ref name="Lee-Mountain"/><ref name="aaa"/>
WhenSaat peopleorang definemenentukan anddan putmenggunakan aboutsatu apaham particulartertentu conceptionuntuk of race"ras", theymereka createmenciptakan asuatu socialkenyataan realitysosial throughdi whichmana socialditerapkan categorizationsuatu iskategorisasi achievedsosial tertentu.<ref name="Lee_judicial"/> InOleh thissebab sense,itu races"ras" aredipandang said to besebagai [[social constructkonstruk]]s sosial.<ref name="blank"/> These constructs develop within various legal, economic, and sociopolitical contexts, and may be the effect, rather than the cause, of major social situations.<ref name="lee"/> While race is understood to be a social construct by many, most scholars agree that race has real, material effects in housing discrimination, in the legal process, in policing practices, in education, etc. [[Omi and Winant’s]] theories of racial formation describe how “race is a concept which signifies and symbolizes social conflicts and interests by referring to different types of human bodies.”<ref>Omi, Michael and Howard Winant. Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s. New York: Routledge, 1994, p. 55.</ref> The meanings and implications of “race” are produced and invested in by social [[institutions]] as well as through cultural representations. Since Omi and Winant, scholars have elaborated and revised the implications of race as social construction by exploring how the images, ideas and assumptions of race are expressed in everyday life. Angela Davis,<ref>Davis, Angela. Are Prisons Obsolete? Toronto: Publishers Group Canada, 2003.</ref> Ruth Gilmore,<ref>Gilmore, Ruth. Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.</ref> and Imani Perry<ref>Perry, Imani. More Beautiful, More Terrible: The Embrace and Transcendence of Racial Inequality in the United States.</ref> have traced the relationships between the historical, social production of race in legal and criminal language and their effects on the policing and disproportionate incarceration of [[people of color]].
Socioeconomic factors, in combination with early but enduring views of race, have led to considerable suffering within disadvantaged racial groups.<ref name="morgan"/> [[Racial discrimination]] often coincides with [[Racism|racist]] mindsets, whereby the individuals and ideologies of one group come to perceive the members of an [[outgroup]] as both racially defined and morally inferior.<ref name="lee1"/> As a result, racial groups possessing relatively little power often find themselves excluded or oppressed, while hegemonic individuals and [[institution]]s are charged with holding racist attitudes.<ref name="sivanandan"/> Racism has led to many instances of tragedy, including [[slavery]] and [[genocide]].<ref name="owens"/> Scholars continue to debate the degrees to which racial categories are biologically warranted and socially constructed, as well as the extent to which the realities of race must be acknowledged in order for society to comprehend and address racism adequately.<ref name="brace"/>
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