Perang Saudara Spanyol: Perbedaan antara revisi
Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan
merapikan |
Revert to revision 477710 dated 2006-12-09 02:45:38 by Dragunova using popups |
||
Baris 17:
|notes=
}}
'''Perang Saudara Spanyol''', yang berlangsung dari [[17 Juli]] [[1936]] hingga [[1 April]] [[1939]], adalah konflik antara kaum Nasionalis yang dipimpin oleh Jenderal [[Francisco Franco]] yang mengalahkan kaum Loyalis yang dipimpin oleh Presiden [[Manuel Azaña]] dari [[Republik Spanyol Kedua]]. Kaum Loyalis mendapatkan senjata dan relawan dari [[Uni Soviet]] dan gerakan [[Komunis]] internasional, sementara kaum Nasionalis (atau Francois) didukung oleh negara-negara [[Fasis]], termasuk Italia dan Jerman. Kaum Republikan terdiri atas kaum sentris (tengah) yang mendukung [[demokrasi liberal]] kapitalis hingga [[komunisme|komunis]] dan kaum revolusioner [[Anarkisme di Spanyol|anarkis]]. Basis kekuatan mereka terutama adalah sekular dan urban (meskipun juga termasuk kaum buruh tani yang tidak memiliki tanah) dan khususnya kuat di wilayah-wilayah industri seperti [[Asturias]] dan [[Catalunya]]. [[Negeri Basque]] yang konservatif juga memihak dengan [[Republik]], terutama karena ia, bersama-sama dengan tetangganya [[Catalunya]], berusaha mendapatkan otonomi dari pemerintahan pusat yang belakangan ditindas dengan menciptakan sentralisasi terhadap kaum nasionalis. Kaum Francois umumnya memiliki basis dukungan di pedesaan, masyarakat yang kaya dan konservatif. Pada umumnya mereka [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Katolik Roma]], dan mendukung sentralisasi kekuasaan. Sebagian dari [[taktik militer|taktik-taktik militer]] dalam perang ini - termasuk penggunaan [[terorisme|taktik-taktik teror]] terhadap kaum sipil - mendahului apa yang kelak terjadi dalam [[Perang Dunia II]], meskipun baik kaum Nasionalis maupun Republikan sangat mengandalkan pasukan [[infantri]] ketimbang menggunakan taktik-taktik modern seperti [[blitzkrieg]] (serangan kilat) dengan [[tank]] dan [[perang udara|pesawat-pesawat terbang]].
Sementara perang itu berlangsung hanya sekitar tiga tahun, situasi politiknya sudah penuh dengan kekerasan selama beberapa tahun sebelumnya. Jumlah korbannya dipertikaikan. Perkiraan umum menyebutkan antara 300.000 hingga 1 juta orang terbunuh. Banyak di antara para korban ini disebabkan oleh pembunuhan-pembunuhan massal yang dilakukan kedua belah pihak. Perang ini dimulai dengan pemberontakan militer di seluruh Spanyol dan koloni-koloninya, yang diikuti oleh pembalasan kaum Republikan terhadap Gereja, yang dipandang kaum Republikan radikal sebagai lembaga yang menindas yang mendukung orde lama.
Baris 30 ⟶ 26:
Para simpatisan Republikan menyatakannya sebagai perjuangan antara "[[tirani]] dan [[demokrasi]]", atau "[[fasisme]] dan [[kebebasan]]", dan banyak pembaharu muda dan kaum revolusioner yang mempunyai komitmen tinggi bergabung dengan [[Brigade Internasional]], yang merasa bahwa menyelamatkan Republik Spanyol berada di garis depan peperangan melawan [[fasisme]]. Namun para pendukung Franco, khususnya anggota-anggota muda dari korps perwira, memandanganya sebagai pertempuran antara ''gerombolan merah'' [[komunisme]] dan [[anarkisme]] di satu pihak melawan "[[peradaban]] [[Kristen]]" di pihak lain.
<!--==Introduction==
{{History of Spain}}
===Election of Popular Front===
From 1934 to 1936, the [[Second Spanish Republic]] was governed by a centre-right government of the [[Radical Party]] led by [[Alejandro Lerroux]] (despite the name, the Radicals were a moderate middle class party). Crucial parliamentary backing was provided by the authoritarian and Catholic-oriented [[Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right]] (called CEDA). Lerroux's government attempted to annul the social legislation that had been passed in the previous years, especially with regard to [[agrarian reform]]. During this time, there were general [[Strike action|strikes]] in [[Valencia]] and [[Zaragoza]], street conflicts in [[Madrid]] and [[Barcelona]], and a miners' uprising in [[Asturias]]. Lerroux's alliance with the right, his harsh repression of the revolt in 1934, and scandal combined to leave him and his party with little support going into the 1936 election. (Lerroux himself lost his seat in parliament.)
As internal disagreements mounted in the coalition, strikes were frequent, and there were attacks on unionists and clergy{{fact}}. In the elections of February [[1936]], the [[Popular Front (Spain)|Popular Front]] won a majority of the seats in parliament. The coalition, which included the [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party|Socialist Party]], two [[liberal]] parties (the Republican Left Party of [[Manuel Azaña]] and the Republican Union Party), and [[Communist Party of Spain]], as well as [[Galicia (Spain)|Galician]] and [[Catalan]] nationalists, received 34.3 percent of the popular vote, compared to 33.2 percent for the National Front parties led by CEDA[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/SPelections.htm]. The [[Basque]] nationalists were not officially part of the Front, but were sympathetic to it. The anarchist trade union [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]], which had sat out previous elections, urged its members to vote for the Popular Front in response to a campaign promise of amnesty for jailed leftists. The Socialist Party refused to participate in the new government. Its leader [[Largo Caballero]], hailed as the "the Spanish Lenin" by ''[[Pravda]]'', told crowds that revolution was now inevitable. Privately, however, he aimed merely at ousting the liberals and other non-socialists from the cabinet. Moderate Socialists like [[Indalecio Prieto]] condemned the left's May Day marches, clenched fists, and talk of revolution as insanely provocative.<ref>Preston, Paul, [http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=12969&g12969=x&g9137=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x&amid=12969&e=true "Spain 1936: From Coup d'Etat to Civil War,"] ''History Today'', Volume: 36 Issue: 7, July 1986, pp. 24-29</ref> Without the Socialists, Prime Minister [[Manuel Azaña]], a liberal who favored gradual reform while respecting the democratic process, led a minority government. In April, parliament replaced President [[Niceto Alcalá-Zamora]], a moderate who had alienated virtually all the parties, with Azaña. Although the right also voted for Zamora's removal, this was a watershed event which inspired many conservatives to give up on parliamentary politics. Azaña was the object of intense hate by Spanish rightists, who remembered his how he had pushed a reform agenda through a recalcitrant parliament in 1931-33. Joaquín Arrarás, a friend of [[Francisco Franco]]'s, called him, "A repulsive caterpillar of red Spain."<ref>Preston, Paul, [http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=13944&aid=&tgid=&amid=13944&g13944=x&g10713=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x ''Franco and Azaña''], Volume: 49 Issue: 5, May 1999, pp. 17-23</ref>. The Spanish generals particularly disliked Azaña because he had cut the army's budget and closed the military academy when he was war minister (1931). CEDA turned its campaign chest over to army plotter [[Emilio Mola]]. Monarchist [[José Calvo Sotelo]] replaced CEDA's [[José María Gil-Robles y Quiñones|Gil Robles]] as the right's leading spokesman in parliament.<ref>Preston, Paul, op. cit.</ref>
[[Image:SalvadorDali-SoftConstructionWithBeans.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Foreshadowing the conflict: [[Salvador Dalí|Salvador Dalí's]] ''[[Soft Construction with Boiled Beans (Premonition of Civil War)]]'']]
This was a period of rising tensions. Radicals became more aggressive, while conservatives turned to paramilitary and vigilante actions. According to official sources, 330 people were assassinated and 1,511 were wounded in politically-related violence; records show 213 failed [[assassination]] attempts, 113 general strikes, and the destruction of 160 religious buildings.<ref name="moreno"/>
===Deaths of Castillo & Calvo Sotelo===
On [[12 July]] [[1936]], [[José Castillo (Spanish Civil War)|José Castillo]], a member of the Socialist Party and lieutenant in the [[Assault Guards]], a special police corps created to deal with urban violence, was murdered by a 'far right' group in Madrid. The following day, the leader of the conservative opposition Calvo Sotelo was killed in revenge by a commando unit of the Assault Guards. The assassination aroused suspicions among the right of government involvement in the act. Sotelo had protested against what he viewed as an escalating anti-religious terror, expropriations, and hasty agricultural reforms, which he considered [[Bolshevist]] and [[Anarchist]], and instead advocated the creation of a [[Corporatism|corporative state]] and declared that if such a state was [[fascist]], he was also a fascist. He also declared that Spanish soldiers would be mad to not rise for Spain against Anarchy. In turn, the leader of the communists, [[Dolores Ibarruri]], had vowed that Calvo Sotelo's speech would be his last speech in the ''Cortes''{{fact}}. Although the Nationalist generals were already at advanced stages of planning an uprising, the event was seen as a catalyst for what followed.
===Nationalist military uprising===
On [[July 17]], [[1936]], the conservative rebellion long feared by some in the Popular Front government began. Casares Quiroga, who had succeeded Azaña as prime minister, had in the previous weeks exiled the military officers suspected of conspiracy, including General [[Manuel Goded y Llopis]] and General [[Francisco Franco]], sent to the [[Balearic Islands]] and to the [[Canary Islands]], respectively. Both generals immediately took control of these islands. Franco then flew to Morocco, where the Nationalist Army of Africa were almost unopposed in assuming control. The rising was intended to be a swift coup d'etat, but was botched while the government was unable to fully suppress it. The rebels failed to take all major cities - in [[Madrid]] they were hemmed into the Montaña barracks. The barracks fell the next day with much bloodshed. In [[Barcelona]], [[anarchist]]s armed themselves and defeated the rebels. General Goded, who arrived from the Balaeric islands, was captured and later executed. The anarchists would control Barcelona and much of the surrounding [[Aragonian]] and [[Catalonia|Catalan]] countryside for months. The Republicans held on to [[Valencia]] and controlled almost all of the Eastern Spanish coast and central area around Madrid. The Nationalists took most of the northeast apart from [[Asturias]] and the [[Basque Country]] and a southern area including [[Cádiz]], [[Huelva]], [[Sevilla]], [[Córdoba]], and [[Granada]]; resistance in some of these areas led to reprisals.
===Factions in the War===
The active participants in the war covered the entire gamut of the political positions and ideologies of the time. The Nationalist side included the [[Carlists]] and [[Legitimist]] monarchists, Spanish nationalists, fascists of the [[Falange]], [[Catholics]], and most conservatives and monarchist liberals. On the Republican side were [[Basque nationalism|Basque]] and [[Catalan nationalism|Catalan]] nationalists, [[socialism|socialist]]s, [[Communism|communists]], liberals and [[anarchism|anarchists]].
To view the political alignments from another perspective, the Nationalists included the majority of the Catholic clergy and of practising Catholics (outside of the Basque region), important elements of the army, most of the large landowners, and many businessmen. The Republicans included most urban workers, most peasants, and much of the educated middle class, especially those who were not entrepreneurs.
The genial monarchist General [[José Sanjurjo]] was figurehead of the rebellion, while [[Emilio Mola]] was chief planner and second in command. Mola began serious planning in the spring, but General [[Francisco Franco]] hesitated until early July, inspiring other plotters to refer to him as "Miss [[Canary Islands]] 1936." Franco was a key player because of his prestige as a former director of the military academy and the man who suppressed the Socialist uprising of 1934. Warned that a military coup was imminent, leftists put barracades up on the roads on July 17. Franco avoided capture by taking a tugboat to the airport. From there he flew to Morocco, where he took command of the battle-hardened colonial army.<ref>Preston, Paul, [http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=12643&aid=&tgid=&amid=12643&g12643=x&g9105=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x "From rebel to Caudillo: Franco's path to power,"] 'History Today' Volume: 33 Issue: 11, November 1983, pp. 4-10 </ref>Sanjurjo was killed in a plane crash on July 20, leaving effective command split between Mola in the north and Franco in the South. Franco was chosen overall commander at a meeting of ranking generals Salamanca on September 21. He outranked Mola and by this point his Army of Africa had demonstrated its military superiority.
One of the Nationalists' principal claimed motives was to confront the [[anticlericalism]] of the Republican regime and to defend the [[Roman Catholic Church]], which was censured for its support for the monarchy, which many on the Republican side blamed for the ills of the country. In the opening days of the war religious buildings were burnt without action on the part of the Republican authorities to prevent it. As part of the [[Spanish Revolution|social revolution]] taking place, others were turned into ''Houses of the People''. <ref name="CNTBarcelona">notes to the documentary [http://www.hastingsfreetv.org/documents/cnt_repotaje.html ''Reportaje Del Movimiento Revolucionario en Barcelona'', Hasting Free TV]</ref> Similarly, many of the massacres perpetrated by the Republican side targeted the Catholic Clergy. Franco's religious Moroccan [[Muslim]] troops found this repulsive and for the most part fought loyally and often ferociously for the Nationalists. Articles 24 and 26 of the Constitution of the Republic banned the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]], which deeply offended many of the Nationalists. After the beginning of the Nationalist coup, anger flared anew at the Church and its role in Spanish politics. Not withstanding these religious matters, the Basque nationalists, who nearly all sided with the Republic, were, for the most part, practicing Catholics. [[Pope John Paul II]] later canonised several people murdered for being priests or nuns. {{fact}}
===Foreign involvement===
[[Image:Mussolini hitler.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Mussolini and Hitler.]]
{{wikisourcepar|Relations of Members of the United Nations with Spain}}
{{wikisourcepar|Condecoraciones otorgadas por Francisco Franco a Benito Mussolini y a Adolf Hitler}}
The rebellion was opposed by the government (with the troops that remained loyal to the Republic), as well as by the vast majority of urban workers, who were often members of [[Socialism|Socialist]], [[Communism|Communist]] and [[anarchism|anarchist]] groups.
Although the [[United Kingdom|British]] government proclaimed itself neutral, its diplomats in Spain urged support for the Nationalists. Britain froze all Spanish assets, an act that affected primarily the loyalist side because the government had transferred its gold reserves to Britain for safe keeping at the start of the war. Similarly, the Anglo-French arms embargo hit the Republicans disproportionately and did not prevent the Nationalists from getting weapons from Italy and Germany. Britain also discouraged activity by its citizens supporting the Republicans. The last Republican prime minister, Juan Negrín, hoped that a general outbreak of war in Europe would compel the European powers (mainly Britain and France) to finally help the republic, but World War II would not commence until months after the Spanish conflict had ended. Ultimately neither Britain nor France intervened to any significant extent. Britain supplied food and medicine to the Republic, but actively discouraged the French government of [[Léon Blum]] from supplying weapons.
Both [[Fascist Italy]] under [[Benito Mussolini]] and [[Nazi Germany]] under [[Adolf Hitler]] violated the embargo and sent troops (''[[Corpo Truppe Volontarie]]'' and ''[[Legión Cóndor]]''), aircraft, and weapons to support Franco. The Italian contribution amounted to over 60,000 troops at the height of the war, and the involvement helped to increase Mussolini's popularity among Italian Catholics, as the latter had remained highly critical of their ex-Socialist fascist ''[[Duce]]''. Italian military help to Nationalists against the anti-clerical and anti-Catholic atrocities committed by the Republican side, worked well in Italian propaganda targeting on Catholics. On July 27, 1936 the first squadron of Italian airplanes sent by Benito Mussolini arrived in Spain.<ref>Speech delivered by Premier Benito Mussolini. Rome, Italy, February 23, 1941</ref>. It has been speculated that Hitler used the Spanish Civil War issue to distract Mussolini from Hitler's own designs on and plans for [[Austria]] (''[[Anschluss]]''), as the authoritarian Catholic, anti-Nazi [[Patriotic Front (Austria)|Väterländische Front]] government of autonomous Austria had been in alliance with Mussolini since [[1922]] and in 1934 during the assassinnation of Austria's authoritarian president [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] had already successfully invoked Italian military assistance in case of a Nazi German invasion.
In addition, there were a few volunteer troops from other nations who fought with the Nationalists, such as the [[The Blueshirts|Irish Blueshirts]] under [[Eoin O'Duffy]], and including such romantic Catholic intellectuals as the poet [[Roy Campbell (poet)|Roy Campbell]]. Although these volunteers, primarily Catholics, came from around the world (including Ireland, Brazil, and the USA), they are not nearly as famous as those fighting on the Republican side, and were generally less organized and hence embedded in Nationalist units.
Due to the Franco-British arms embargo, the Government of the Republic could receive aid and purchase arms only from the [[Soviet Union]], which was thousands of miles away and in economic disarray itself. These arms included 1,000 aircraft, 900 tanks, 1,500 artillery pieces, 300 armored cars, hundreds of thousands of small arms, and 30,000 tons of ammunition (some of which was defective). To pay for these armaments the Republicans used [[United States dollar|US$]]500 million in gold reserves. At the start of the war the [[Bank of Spain]] had the world's fourth largest reserve of gold, about US$750 million [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/SPrussia.htm], although some assets were frozen by the French and British governments. The Soviet Union also sent more than 2,000 personnel, mainly [[tank]] crews and [[Aviator|pilots]], who actively participated in combat, on the Republican side. [http://www.oneparty.co.uk/compass/compass/com12301.html] Nevertheless, some have contended that the Soviet government was motivated by the desire to sell arms and that they charged extortionate prices [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/spain/review_arms_gold.html]. Later, the "[[Moscow gold]]" was an issue during the [[Spanish transition to democracy]]. They have also been accused of prolonging the war because Stalin knew that Britain and France would never accept a communist government. Though Stalin did call for the repression of Republican elements that were hostile to the Soviet Union (e.g. the anti-Stalininst [[POUM]]), he also made a conscious effort to limit Soviet involvement in the struggle and silence its revolutionary aspects in an attempt to remain on good diplomatic terms with the French and British.<ref>Paul Preston, “A Concise History of the Spanish Civil War”, (London, 1986), P.107</ref> [[Mexico]] also aided the Republicans by providing rifles and [[food]]. Throughout the war, the efforts of the elected government of the Republic to resist the rebel army were hampered by Franco-British 'non-intervention', long supply lines and intermittent availability of weapons of widely variable quality.
[[Image:GuerraCivil-Italia.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Helping the Nationalist forces from the start of the conflict, the Italian government assembled troops, composed of "volunteers" for legal purposes, since the Kingdom of Italy never declared war against the Spanish Republic. A poster of the Republican forces urges Spaniards: "Rise up against the Italian invasion of Spain!".]]
Volunteers from many countries fought in Spain, most of them on the Republican side. 60,000 men and women fought in the [[International Brigades]], including the American [[Abraham Lincoln Brigade]] and Canadian [[Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion]], organised in close conjunction with the [[Comintern]] to aid the Spanish Republicans. Others fought as members of the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] and [[Workers' Party of Marxist Unification|POUM]] militias. Those fighting with POUM most famously included [[George Orwell]] and the small [[ILP Contingent]].
'Spain' became the [[cause célèbre]] for the left-leaning intelligentsia across the Western world, and many prominent artists and writers entered the Republic's service. As well, it attracted a large number of foreign left-wing working class men, for whom the war offered not only idealistic adventure but also an escape from post-Depression unemployment. Among the more famous foreigners participating on the Republic's side were [[Ernest Hemingway]] and [[George Orwell]], who went on to write about his experiences in ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]''. Orwell's novel ''[[Animal Farm]]'' was loosely inspired by his experiences and those of other members of [[POUM]], at the hands of [[Stalinist]]s when the Popular Front began to fight within itself, as were the torture scenes in ''[[1984 (novel)|1984]]''. Hemingway's novel ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]'' was inspired by his experiences in Spain. The third part of [[Laurie Lee]]'s autobiographical trilogy ('A Moment of War') is also based on his Civil War experiences, (though the accuracy of some of his recollections has been disputed). [[Norman Bethune]] used the opportunity to develop the special skills of [[battlefield medicine]]. As a casual visitor, [[Errol Flynn]] used a fake report of his death at the battlefront to promote his movies. Despite the predominantly leftist attitude of the artistic community, several prominent writers such as [[Ezra Pound]], [[Gertrude Stein]], and [[Evelyn Waugh]] all sided with Franco.
The Nationalists received substantial overt aid in the form of arms and troops from Germany and Italy. The Republicans received no aid from any major world power other than the Soviet Union, from whom they could purchase arms, thanks to their control of the Spanish gold reserves located in Madrid at the beginning of the war. At this time, Britain and France were deeply divided politically and had weak governments, while the United States was isolationist, neutralist, and was little concerned with what it largely saw as an internal matter in a European country. Nevertheless, from the outset the Nationalists received important support from some elements of American business. The American-owned [[Vacuum Oil Company]] in [[Tangier]], for example, refused to sell to Republican ships and the [[Texas Oil Company]] supplied gasoline on credit to Franco until the war's end. Many in these countries were also shocked by the violence practiced by anarchist and POUM militias - and reported by a relatively free press in the Republican zone - and feared Stalinist influence over the Republican government. Reprisals, assassinations and other atrocities in the rebel zone were, of course, not reported nearly as widely.
Germany and the USSR used the war as a testing ground for faster tanks and aircraft that were just becoming available at the time. The [[Messerschmitt]] [[Me-109 fighter]] and [[Junkers Ju 52]] transport/bomber were both used in the Spanish Civil War. The Soviets provided [[Polikarpov I-15]] and [[Polikarpov I-16]] fighters. The Spanish Civil War was also an example of [[total war]], where the [[bombing of Guernica|bombing of the Basque town of Guernica]] by the [[Legión Cóndor]], as depicted by [[Pablo Picasso]] in [[Guernica (painting)|Guernica]], foreshadowed episodes of [[World War II]] such as the bombing campaign on Britain by the Nazis and the [[Bombing of Dresden in World War II|bombing of Dresden]] by the Allies.
The extent of foreign involvement in the conflict has led some commentators (most notably [[Paul Preston]]) to view it as part of a wider integrated [[European Civil War]].
As war proceeded in the Northern front, the Republican authorities arranged the evacuation of children.
These [[Spanish War children]] were shipped to Britain, Belgium, the Soviet Union and other European countries.
Those in Western European countries returned to their families after the war, but many of those in the Soviet Union, from Communist families, remained and experienced the Second World War and the [[fall of the Soviet Union]].
Like the Republican side, the Nationalist side of Franco also arranged evacuations of children, women and elderly from war zones. Refugee camps for those civilians evacuated by the Nationalists were set up in [[Portugal]], [[Italy]], the [[Third Reich|German Empire]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]].
== The war: 1936 ==
:''For a fully detailed chronology see [[Spanish Civil War chronology 1936]].
In the early days of the war, over 50,000 people who were caught on the "wrong" side of the lines were assassinated or summarily [[execution (legal)|executed]]. The numbers were probably comparable on both sides. In these ''paseos'' ("promenades"), as the executions were called, the victims were taken from their refuges or jails by armed people to be shot outside of town. Probably the most famous of these was the poet and dramatist [[Federico García Lorca]]. The outbreak of the war provided an excuse for settling accounts and resolving long-standing feuds. Thus, this practice became widespread during the war in areas conquered. In most areas, even within a single given village, both sides committed assassinations.
Any hope of a quick ending to the war was dashed on [[July 21]], the fifth day of the rebellion, when the Nationalists captured the main [[Spanish Navy|Spanish naval base]] at [[El Ferrol]] in northwestern Spain. This encouraged the Fascist nations of [[Europe]] to help Franco, who had already contacted the governments of [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] the day before. On July 26, [[Axis Powers]] cast their lot with the Nationalists. Nationalist forces under Franco won another great victory on [[September 27]] when they [[Siege of the Alcázar|relieved the Alcázar]] at [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]].
A Nationalist garrison under [[José Moscardó Ituarte|Colonel Moscardo]] had held the [[Alcázar]] in the center of the city since the beginning of the rebellion, resisting for months against thousands of Republican troops who completely surrounded the isolated building (the inability to take the Alcázar was a serious blow to the prestige of the Republic, as it was considered inexplicable in view of their numerical superiority in the area). Two days later Franco proclaimed himself ''[[Generalísimo]]'' and ''[[Caudillo]]'' ("chieftain") while forcibly unifying the various [[Falange|Falangist]] and Royalist elements of the Nationalist cause. In October, the Nationalists launched a major offensive toward [[Madrid]], reaching it in early November and launching a major assault on the city on [[November 8]]. The Republican government was forced to shift from Madrid to [[Valencia]], out of the combat zone, on [[November 6]]. However, the Nationalist's attack on the capital was repulsed in fierce fighting between November 8 and 23. A contributory factor in the successful Republican defence was the arrival of the [[International Brigades]] -though only around 3000 of them participated in the battle. having failed to take the capital, Franco bombarded it from the air and in the following two years, mounted several offensives to try to encircle Madrid. (See also [[Siege of Madrid (1936-39)]])
On [[November 18]], Germany and Italy officially recognized the Franco regime, and on [[December 23]], [[Italy]] sent "volunteers" of its own to fight for the Nationalists.
==The war: 1937==
:''For a much more detailed chronology see [[Spanish Civil War chronology 1937]]''
With his ranks being swelled by Italian troops and Spanish colonial soldiers from Morocco, Franco made another attempt to capture Madrid in January and February of 1937, but failed again. [[Image:GuerraCivil-Cruzada.jpg|200px|thumb|right|The frequent and violent attacks by Republican forces on clergy, laity, and property of the [[Catholic Church]] led the Nationalist side to call the Spanish Civil War a modern-day [[Crusade]]. This Nationalist poster proclaims: "CRUSADE. Spain, spiritual guide of the world".]] On [[February 21]] the League of Nations Non-Intervention Committee ban on foreign national "[[Unlawful combatant|volunteers]]" went into effect. The large city of [[Málaga]] [[Battle of Málaga|was taken]] on [[February 8]], and on [[April 28]], Franco's men entered [[Guernica]], in the [[Basque Country]], two days after the bombing of that city by the German [[Condor Legion]] equipped with [[Heinkel He 51]] biplanes (the legion arrived in Spain on [[May 7]]). After the fall of Guernica, the government began to fight back with increasing effectiveness.
In July, the government made a move to recapture [[Segovia]], forcing Franco to pull troops away from the Madrid front to halt their advance. Mola, Franco's second-in-command, was killed on June 3, and in early July, despite the fall of [[Bilbao]] in June, the government actually launched a strong counter-offensive in the Madrid area, which the Nationalists repulsed with some difficulty. The clash was called "[[Battle of Brunete]]" (Brunete is a town in the province of [[Madrid]]).
After that, Franco regained the initiative, invading [[Aragon]] in August and then taking the city of [[Santander]] (now in [[Cantabria]]). Two months of bitter fighting followed and, despite determined Asturian resistance, [[Gijón]] (in [[Asturias]]) fell in late October, which effectively ended the war in the North.
Meanwhile, on [[August 28]], the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] recognized Franco (possibly under pressure from Mussolini), and at the end of November, with the Nationalists closing in on [[Valencia]], the government moved again, to [[Barcelona]].
==The war: 1938==
:''For a much more detailed chronology see [[Spanish Civil War chronology 1938-1939]]''
The battle of Teruel was an important confrontation between Nationalists and Republicans. The city belonged to the Republicans at the beginning of the battle, but the Nationalists conquered it in January. The Republican government launched an offensive and recovered the city, however the Nationalists finally conquered it for good by [[February 22]]. On [[April 14]], the Nationalists broke through to the [[Mediterranean Sea]], cutting the government-held portion of Spain in two. The government tried to sue for peace in May, but Franco demanded unconditional surrender, and the war raged on.
The government now launched an all-out campaign to reconnect their territory in the [[Battle of the Ebro]], beginning on [[July 24]] and lasting until [[November 26]]. The campaign was militarily successful, but was fatally undermined by the Franco-British appeasement of [[Hitler]] in [[Munich]]. The concession of [[Czechoslovakia]] destroyed the last vestiges of Republican morale by ending all hope of an anti-fascist alliance with the great powers. The retreat from the Ebro all but determined the final outcome of the war. Eight days before the new year, Franco struck back by throwing massive forces into an invasion of [[Catalonia]].
==The war: 1939==
:''For a much more detailed chronology see [[Spanish Civil War chronology 1938-1939]]''
[[Image:Spain final-guerra-civil.jpg|thumb|Franco declares the end of the war.]]
The Nationalists conquered Catalonia in a whirlwind campaign during the first two months of 1939. [[Tarragona]] fell on [[January 14]], followed by [[Barcelona]] on [[January 26]] and [[Girona]] on [[February 5]]. Five days after the fall of Girona, the last resistance in Catalonia was broken.
On [[February 27]], the governments of the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] recognized the Franco regime.
Only Madrid and a few other strongholds remained for the government forces. On [[March 28]], with the help of pro-Franco forces inside the city (the "[[fifth column]]" General Mola had mentioned in [[propaganda]] broadcasts in 1936), Madrid fell to the Nationalists. The next day, [[Valencia]], which had held out under the guns of the Nationalists for close to two years, also surrendered. Victory was proclaimed on [[April 1]], when the last of the Republican forces surrendered.
After the end of the War, there were harsh reprisals against Franco's former enemies on the left, when thousands of Republicans were imprisoned and between 10,000 and 28,000 executed. The historian [[Anthony Beevor]] has estimated that Franco's regime ultimately killed 200,000 political opponents. Many other Republicans fled abroad, especially to France and Mexico.
==Social Revolution==
{{main|Spanish Revolution}}
In the anarchist-controlled areas, [[Aragon]] and [[Catalonia]], in addition to the temporary military success, there was a vast [[social revolution]] in which the workers and the peasants [[collectivisation|collectivised]] [[Land rights|land]] and industry, and set up councils parallel to the paralyzed Republican government. This revolution was opposed by both the Soviet-supported communists, who ultimately took their orders from Stalin's politburo (which feared a loss of control), and the [[Social Democratic]] Republicans (who worried about the loss of civil property rights). The [[agrarian collectives]] had considerable success despite opposition and lack of resources, as Franco had already captured lands with some of the richest natural resources. This success survives in the minds of libertarian revolutionaries as an example that an [[anarchist]] society can flourish under the right conditions — or at least under siege, opponents may argue.
As the war progressed, the government and the communists were able to leverage their access to Soviet arms to restore government control over the war effort, both through diplomacy and force. [[Anarchist]]s and the [[POUM]] were integrated with the regular army, albeit with resistance; the POUM was outlawed, falsely denounced as an instrument of the fascists. In the ''[[Barcelona May Days|May Days]]'' of 1937, many hundreds or thousands of anti-fascist soldiers killed one another for control of strategic points in [[Barcelona]], as [[George Orwell]] relates in '' [[Homage to Catalonia]]''.
[[Image:Brigde at Ronda, Spain.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Puente Nuevo]], the bridge that links together the two parts of [[Ronda]] in Spain. Behind the window near the center of the bridge is a prison cell. It is said that during the Civil War the nationalists threw people who supported the republicans from the bridge to their deaths many meters down at the bottom of the El Tajo canyon]]
==People==
===Figures identified with the Nationalist side===
* [[Francisco Franco]]
* [[Miguel Cabanellas]]
* [[José Sanjurjo]]
* [[Emilio Mola]]
* [[Gonzalo Queipo de Llano]]
* [[Juan Yagüe]]
* [[José Enrique Varela]]
* [[Rafael García Valiño]]
* [[Luis Carrero Blanco]]
* [[Fidel Dávila]]
* [[José Millán Astray]]
* [[Roy Campbell (poet)|Roy Campbell]]
* [[Juan March Ordinas]]
* [[Eoin O'Duffy]]
* [[José Antonio Primo de Rivera]]
* [[Mohamed Mizzian]]
[[Image:View from Bridge at Ronda, Spain.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The bottom of the canyon.]]
===Figures identified with the Republican / Loyalist side===
* [[Manuel Azaña]]
* [[Claud Cockburn]]
* [[Joaquín Arderíus]]
* [[Norman Bethune]]
* [[Pedro García Cabrera]]
* [[Santiago Carrillo]]
* [[Buenaventura Durruti]]
* [[Federico García Lorca]]
* [[José Giral|José Giral Pereira]]
* [[Valentin González]] (''"El Campesino"'')
* [[Ernest Hemingway]]
* [[Miguel Hernández]]
* [[Dolores Ibarruri]] (''"La Pasionaria"'')
* [[Francisco Largo Caballero]]
* [[André Malraux]]
* [[Diego Martínez Barrio]]
* [[José Miaja]]
* [[Juan Modesto]]
* [[Juan Negrín]]
* [[George Orwell]]
* [[Indalecio Prieto]]
* [[Melchor Rodriguez Garcia]]
* [[Vicente Rojo Lluch]]
* [[James Robertson Justice]]
* [[Henri Rol-Tanguy]] (leader of Free French Forces during Paris uprising in 1944)
* [[Laurie Lee]]
===Journalists and spies===
* [[Ernest Hemingway]]
* [[Emma Goldman]] (Anarchist Writer).
* [[Ilya Ehrenburg]]
* [[Samuel Krafsur]]
* [[Carl Marzani]]
* [[Robert Miller|Robert Talbott Miller III]]
* [[Ture Nerman]] (Swedish Communist leader).
* [[Pablo Neruda]]
* [[Kim Philby]]
* [[Arthur Koestler]]
* [[Alexander Orlov]]
* [[Langston Hughes]]
* [[Nicolas Guillen]]
====American pilots====
* [[Eddie August Schneider]] (1911-1940)
* [[Bert Acosta]]
*[[Frank Glasgow Tinker]]
George Orwell
==Political parties and organizations==
===The Popular Front (Republican)===
The Popular Front was an electoral alliance formed between various left-wing and centrist parties for elections to the [[Cortes Generales|Cortes]] in 1936, in which the alliance won a majority of seats.
*'''UR ([[Unión Republicana]] - Republican Union):''' Led by [[Diego Martínez Barrio]], formed in 1934 by members of the [[Partido Republicano Radical|PRR]] who had resigned in objection to [[Alejandro Lerroux]]'s coalition with the [[Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas|CEDA]]. It drew its main support from skilled workers and progressive businessmen.
*'''IR ([[Izquierda Republicana]] - Republican Left):''' Led by former Prime Minister [[Manuel Azaña]] after his [[Acción Republicana]] party merged with [[Santiago Casares Quiroga]]'s [[Galicia (Spain)|Galician]] independence party and the [[Partido Republicano Radical Socialista|PRRS]] (Socialist Radical Republican Party). It drew its support from skilled workers, small businessmen and civil servants. Azaña led the Popular Front and became President of Spain. The IR formed the bulk of the first government after the Popular Front victory, with members of the UR and the ERC.
**'''ERC ([[Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya]] - Republican Left of Catalonia):''' The [[Catalonia|Catalan]] faction of Azaña's Republicans, led by [[Lluis Companys|Lluís Companys]].
*'''PSOE ([[Partido Socialista Obrero Español]] - Spanish Socialist Workers' Party):''' Formed in 1879, its alliance with Acción Republicana in municipal elections in 1931 saw a landslide victory that led to the King's abdication and the creation of the Second Republic. The two parties won the subsequent general election, but the PSOE left the coalition in 1933. At the time of the Civil War the PSOE was split between a right wing under [[Indalecio Prieto]] and [[Juan Negrín]], and a left wing under [[Largo Caballero]]. Following the Popular Front victory it was the second largest party in the Cortes, after the CEDA; it supported the ministries of Azaña and Quiroga but did not actively participate until the Civil War began. It had majority support amongst urban manual workers.
**'''UGT ([[Unión General de Trabajadores]] - General Union of Workers):''' The socialist trade union. The UGT was formally linked to the PSOE and the bulk of the union followed Caballero.
**'''Federacion de Juventudes Socialistas (Federation of Socialist Youth)'''
*'''PSUC ([[Partit Socialista Unificat de Catalunya]] - Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia):''' An alliance of various socialist parties in Catalonia, formed in the summer of 1936, controlled by the PCE.
*'''JSU ([[Juventudes Socialistas Unificadas]] - Unified Socialist Youths):''' Militant youth group formed by the merger of the Socialist and the Communist youth groups. Its leader, [[Santiago Carrillo]], came from the Socialist Youth but had secretly joined the Communist Youth prior to merger, and the group was soon dominated by the PCE.
*'''PCE ([[Partido Comunista de España]] - Communist Party of Spain):''' Led by [[José Díaz]] in the Civil War, it had been a minor party during the early years of the Republic but came to dominate the Popular Front after Negrín became Prime Minister.
*'''POUM ([[Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista]] - Worker's Party of Marxist Unification):''' A party of former [[Trotskyist]]s formed in 1935 by [[Andres Nin|Andreu Nin]].
**'''JCI ([[Iberian Communist Youth|Juventud Comunista Ibérica]] - Iberian Communist Youth):''' the POUM's youth movement.
*'''PS ([[Syndicalist Party|Partido Sindicalista]] - Syndicalist Party):''' a moderate splinter group of CNT.
===Supporters of the Popular Front (Republican)===
*'''[[Unión Militar Republicana Antifascista]] (Republican Anti-fascist Military Union):''' Formed by military officers in opposition to the Unión Militar Española.
*'''''[[Libertarian socialism|Libertarian]] or [[Anarchist]] groups.''''' The libertarians boycotted the 1936 Cortes election and initially opposed the Popular Front government, but joined during the Civil War, when Largo Caballero became Prime Minister.
**'''CNT ([[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] - National Confederation of Labour):''' The confederation of [[anarcho-syndicalist]] trade unions.
**'''FAI ([[Federación Anarquista Ibérica]] - Iberian Anarchist Federation):''' The federation of anarchist groups, very active in the Republican militias.
**'''[[Mujeres Libres]] (Free Women):''' The anarchist [[feminist]] organisation.
**'''FIJL ([[Federación Ibérica de Juventudes Libertarias]] - Iberian Federation of Libertarian Youth)'''
*'''''[[Basque people|Basque]] separatists.'''''
**'''PNV ([[Partido Nacionalista Vasco]] - Basque Nationalist Party):''' A Catholic [[Christian Democracy|Christian Democrat]] party under [[José Antonio Aguirre]], which campaigned for greater autonomy or independence for the Basque region. Held seats in the Cortes and supported the Popular Front government before and during the Civil War. Put its religious disagreement with the Popular Front aside for a promised Basque autonomy.
**'''ANV ([[Acción Nacionalista Vasca]] - Basque Nationalist Action):''' A leftist socialist party which at the same time campaigned for independence of the Basque region.
**'''STV ([[Solidaridad de Trabajadores Vascos]] - Basque Workers' Solidarity):''' A trade union in the Basque region, with a Catholic clerical tradition combined with moderate socialist tendencies.
*'''SRI ([[Socorro Rojo Internacional]] - International Red Aid):''' Communist organization allied with the [[Comintern]] that provided considerable aid to Republican civilians and soldiers.
===Nationalists (Francoist)===
::''Virtually all Nationalist groups had very strong Roman Catholic convictions and supported the native Spanish clergy.''
*'''[[Unión Militar Española]] (Spanish Military Union)''' - a conservative political organisation of officers in the armed forces, including outspoken critics of the Republic like [[Francisco Franco]]. Formed in 1934, from its inception the UME secretly courted fascist Italy. After the electoral victory of the Popular Front, it began plotting a coup with monarchist and fascist groups in Spain. In the run-up to the Civil War it was led by [[Emilio Mola]] and [[José Sanjurjo]], and latterly Franco.
*'''''Alfonsist Monarchist''''' - supported the restoration of [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|Alfonso XIII]]. Many army officers, aristocrats and landowners were Alfonsine, but there was little popular support.
**'''[[Renovación Española]] (Spanish Restoration)''' - the main Alfonsine political party.
**'''[[Acción Española]] (Spanish Action)''' - a fascist party led by [[Jose Calvo Sotelo]], formed in 1933 around a journal of the same name edited by [[Ramiro de Maeztu]].
***'''Bloque Nacional (National Block)''' - the militia movement founded by Calvo Sotelo.
*'''''[[Carlist]] Monarchist''''' - supported [[Alfonso Carlos I de Borbón y Austria-Este]]'s claim to the Spanish throne and saw the Alfonsine line as having been weakened by [[Liberalism]]. After Alfonso Carlos died without issue, the Carlists split - some supporting Carlos' appointed regent, [[Xavier, Duke of Parma|Francisco-Xavier de Borbón-Parma]], others supporting Alfonso XIII or the Falange. The Carlists were clerical hard-liners led by the aristocracy, with a populist base amongst the farmers and rural workers of [[Navarre]] providing the militia.
**'''[[Comunión Tradicionalista]] (Traditionalist Communion)''' - the Carlist political party
***'''Requetés (Volunteers)''' - militia movement.
***'''Pelayos''' - militant youth movement, named after [[Pelayo of Asturias]].
***'''Margaritas''' - women's movement, named after [[Margarita de Borbón-Parma]], wife of Carlist pretender [[Charles VII of Spain|Charles VII]] (1868-1909).
*'''[[Falange]] (Phalanx)''':
**'''FE (Falange Española de las JONS)''' - created by a merger in 1934 of two fascist organisations, [[José Antonio Primo de Rivera|Primo de Rivera]]'s Falange (Phalanx), founded in 1933, and [[Ramiro Ledesma]]'s [[Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista]](Assemblies of National-Syndicalist Offensive), founded in 1931. It became a mass movement after the defeat of the PRR and the collapse of the CEDA in the 1936 General Election, when it was joined by [[José María Gil-Robles y Quiñones]]'s [[Acción Popular]], and [[Acción Católica]], led by [[Ramón Serrano Súñer]].
***'''OJE (Organización Juvenil Española)''' - militant youth movement.
***'''Sección Femenina (Feminine Section)''' - women's movement in labour of Social Aid.
**'''[[Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS]]''' - created by a merger in 1937 of the FE and the Carlist party, bringing the remaining political and militia components of the Nationalist side under Franco's ultimate authority. -->
== Lihat pula ==
| |||