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An association between circumcision and reduced heterosexual HIV infection rates was suggested in 1986.<ref name=alanis_2004/> Experimental evidence was needed to establish a causal relationship, so three [[randomized controlled trial]]s were commissioned as a means to reduce the effect of any [[confounding|confounding factors]].<ref name=siegfried_Cochrane_2003/> Trials took place in South Africa, [[Kenya]] and [[Uganda]].<ref name=siegfried_Cochrane_2009/> All three trials were stopped early by their monitoring boards on ethical grounds, because those in the circumcised group had a lower rate of HIV contraction than the control group.<ref name=siegfried_Cochrane_2009/> Subsequently, the World Health Organization promoted circumcision in high-risk populations as part of an overall program to reduce the spread of HIV,<ref name=WHO_HIV_2007/> although some have challenged the validity of the African randomized controlled trials, prompting a number of researchers to question the effectiveness of circumcision as an HIV prevention strategy.<ref name=boyle_hill_2011/><ref name=dowsett_2007/><ref name=darby_2011/><ref name=frisch_2013/> The Male Circumcision Clearinghouse website was formed by WHO, UNAIDS, FHI and AVAC to provide current evidence-based guidance, information and resources to support the delivery of safe male circumcision services in countries that choose to scale up the procedure as one component of comprehensive HIV prevention services.<ref name=NYTimes_2009/><ref name=AVAC_2012/>
==SocietyMasyarakat anddan culturebudaya==
===Budaya dan agama===
===Cultures and religions {{Anchor|Cultures and religions}}===
{{See also|ReligiousSunat malepria circumcisionreligius}}
InDalam somebeberapa culturesbudaya, maleslaki-laki mustharus bedisunat circumcisedsesaat shortlysetelah after birthlahir, duringselama childhoodmasa orkanak-kanak aroundatau pubertysekitar aspubertas partsebagai ofbagian adari riteritus of passageperjalanan. Circumcision is commonlySunat practicedbiasa indilakukan thedalam Jewishagama andYahudi Islamicdan faithsIslam.<!-- the references for this, found in the following sections, are: <ref name=alsabbagh_1996/><ref name=Bolnick_2012_ch23/><ref name=Bolnick_2012_ch24/><ref name=Bolnick_2012_ch26/><ref name=clark_2011/><ref name=Columbia_encyc_2011_circ/><ref name=encyc_religion_2005/><ref name=glass_1999/><ref name=riggs_2006/><ref name=WHO_2007_GTDPSA/> !--> ▼
===Yahudi===
▲In some cultures, males must be circumcised shortly after birth, during childhood or around puberty as part of a rite of passage. Circumcision is commonly practiced in the Jewish and Islamic faiths.<!-- the references for this, found in the following sections, are: <ref name=alsabbagh_1996/><ref name=Bolnick_2012_ch23/><ref name=Bolnick_2012_ch24/><ref name=Bolnick_2012_ch26/><ref name=clark_2011/><ref name=Columbia_encyc_2011_circ/><ref name=encyc_religion_2005/><ref name=glass_1999/><ref name=riggs_2006/><ref name=WHO_2007_GTDPSA/> !-->
====Judaism====
{{main|Brit milah}}
[[File:Covenant of Abraham.JPG|thumb|PreparingPersiapan foruntuk asunat Jewish ritual circumcision with a Mogen shield (on the table, next to the scalpel)Yahudi.]]
Sunat sangat penting untuk Yahudi, dengan lebih dari 90% penganut sudah disunat sebagai kewajiban agama. Dasar dari kewajiban ini ditemukan di dalam Taurat, dalam Kejadian pasal 17, di mana perjanjian sunat dibuat untuk Abraham dan keturunannya. Sunat Yahudi adalah bagian dari ritual ''[[brit milah]]'', yang dilakukan oleh pesunat spesialis (seorang ''[[mohel]]'') pada hari kedelapan dari kehidupan anak laki-laki yang baru lahir (dengan pengecualian tertentu seperti sakit). Konversi ke Yahudi juga harus disunat, mereka yang sudah disunat menjalani ritual sunat secara simbolis.<ref name=glass_1999/><ref name=Bolnick_2012_ch23/>
Circumcision is very important to Judaism, with over 90% of adherents having the procedure performed as a religious obligation. The basis for its observance is found in the [[Torah]] of the Hebrew Bible, in Genesis chapter 17, in which a covenant of circumcision is made with Abraham and his descendants. Jewish circumcision is part of the ''[[brit milah]]'' ritual, to be performed by a specialist ritual circumciser (a ''[[mohel]]'') on the eighth day of a newborn son's life (with certain exceptions for poor health). Jewish law requires that the circumcision leave the glans bare when the penis is flaccid. Converts to Judaism must also be circumcised; those who are already circumcised undergo a symbolic circumcision ritual. Circumcision is not required by Judaism for one to be considered Jewish, but adherents foresee serious negative spiritual consequences if it is neglected.<ref name=glass_1999/><ref name=Bolnick_2012_ch23/>
====Islam====
{{main|Khitan (circumcisionsunat)}}
[[Image:Jongetjes in prinsenkledij voor besnijdenisfeest.JPG| thumb | right | ChildrenAnak-anak indi [[TurkeyTurki]] wearingmengenakan traditionalkostum circumcision costumessunat tradisional.]]
Meskipun ada beberapa perdebatan mengenai apakah dalam Islam sunat merupakan persyaratan agama, sunat (disebut ''khitan'') dipraktekkan hampir secara universal oleh pria Muslim. Islam mendasarkan praktek sunatnya pada narasi Kejadian 17, pasal Alkitab yang sama yang disebut oleh orang-orang Yahudi. Prosedur ini tidak disebutkan secara eksplisit dalam Quran, namun itu adalah tradisi yang ditetapkan oleh Nabi Muhammad secara langsung, sehingga prakteknya dianggap sebagai ''[[sunnah]]'' (tradisi nabi) dan sangat penting dalam Islam. Bagi umat Islam, sunat juga soal kebersihan. Tidak ada kesepakatan di antara masyarakat Islam tentang usia di mana sunat harus dilakukan. Ini dapat dilakukan dari segera setelah lahir sampai sekitar usia 15 tahun, tetapi paling sering dilakukan di sekitar enam sampai tujuh tahun. Waktu tersebut bisa sesuai dengan selesainya anak itu dari bacaan seluruh Quran. Sunat dapat dirayakan dengan keluarga atau acara komunitas. Sunat dianjurkan, tetapi tidak diperlukan, konversi ke Islam. <ref name=clark_2011/><ref name=alsabbagh_1996/><ref name=Bolnick_2012_ch24/>
Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement, circumcision (called ''khitan'') is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males. Islam bases its practice of circumcision on the Genesis 17 narrative, the same Biblical chapter referred to by Jews. The procedure is not explicitly mentioned in the Quran, however it is a tradition established by Islam's prophet [[Muhammad]] directly (following Abraham), and so its practice is considered a ''[[sunnah]]'' (prophet's tradition) and is very important in Islam. For Muslims, circumcision is also a matter of cleanliness, purification and control over one's baser self (''[[nafs]]''). There is no agreement across the many Islamic communities about the age at which circumcision should be performed. It may be done from soon after birth up to about age 15, with it most often performed at around six to seven years of age. The timing can correspond with the boy's completion of his recitation of the whole Quran, with a coming-of-age event such as taking on the responsibility of daily prayer or betrothal. Circumcision may be celebrated with an associated family or community event. Circumcision is recommended for, but is not required of, converts to Islam.<ref name=clark_2011/><ref name=alsabbagh_1996/><ref name=Bolnick_2012_ch24/>
====ChristianityKristen====
TheSalah satu bab dari [[NewPerjanjian TestamentBaru]] chapter, [[CouncilKisah ofPara Jerusalem|ActsRasul 15]] recordsmencatat thatbahwa ChristianityKristen doestidak notmewajibkan require circumcisionsunat. ChristianityKristen doesjuga not forbid ittidak eithermelarangnya; the [[Gospel ofInjil LukeLukas]] mentionsmenyebutkan thatbahwa [[Circumcision ofSunat JesusYesus|JesusYesus himselfsendiri was circumciseddisunat]].<ref>http://gracecommentary.com/luke-2_21-24/</ref> Pada Intahun 1442, the leadership of thepimpinan [[CatholicGereja ChurchKatolik]] declaredmenyatakan thatbahwa circumcisionsunat wastidak not necessarydiperlukan.<ref>[[Pope Eugene IV]]'s [[Papal Bull|bull]] [http://catholicism.org/cantate-domino.html Cantate Domino] says that "The sacrosanct Roman Church" "commands all who glory in the name of Christian, at whatever time, before or after baptism, to cease entirely from circumcision, since, whether or not one places hope in it, it cannot be observed at all without the loss of eternal salvation."</ref> [[CopticGereja OrthodoxOrtodoks ChurchKoptik of AlexandriaAleksandria|CopticKristen ChristiansKoptik]] practicemempraktekkan circumcisionsunat assebagai a rite ofsuatu passageritus.<ref name=WHO_2007_GTDPSA/><ref name=Columbia_encyc_2011_circ/><ref name=riggs_2006/><ref name=Bolnick_2012_ch26/> The [[Ethiopian OrthodoxGereja Tewahedo ChurchOrtodoks Ethiopia|EthiopianGereja OrthodoxOrtodoks ChurchEthiopia]] callsmengajak foruntuk circumcisionsunat, withdengan prevalensi hampir near-universal prevalencedi amongantara Orthodoxlaki-laki menOrtodoks indi Ethiopia.<ref name=WHO_2007_GTDPSA/> Di InAfrika South AfricaSelatan, somebeberapa Christiangereja churchesKristen disapprovetidak of themenyetujui practicesunat, whilesementara othersyang requirelainnya itmewajibkan ofsunat theirbagi membersanggotanya.<ref name=WHO_2007_GTDPSA/>
====AfricanKebudayaan culturesAfrika====
CertainBeberapa Africansuku culturaldi groupsAfrika, such as theseperti [[Orang Yoruba people|Yoruba]] anddan [[Orang Igbo people|Igbo]] ofdi [[Nigeria]], customarilybiasa circumcizemenyunatkan theirbayi infant sonsmereka. Prosedur Theini procedurejuga isdilakukan alsooleh practicedbeberapa bysuku someatau culturalgaris groupskeluarga or individual family lines in thedi Sudan, Zaire, Uganda anddan inselatan southern AfricaAfrika. Beberapa Fordari somesuku-suku of these groupsini, circumcision appears tosunat betampaknya purelybudaya culturalyang, donedilakukan withtanpa nosignifikansi particularagama religioustertentu significanceatau orniat intentionuntuk tomembedakan distinguishanggota members of a groupsuku. Bagi Fororang otherslain, circumcisionsunat mightbisa bedilakukan doneuntuk for purificationpemurnian, oratau itditafsirkan maysebagai betanda interpreted as a mark of subjugationpenaklukan. Di Amongantara thesesuku-suku groups,ini evenbahkan whensunat circumcisionyang isdilakukan donekarena foralasan reasons of traditiontradisi, it issering oftendilakukan donedi inrumah hospitalssakit.<ref name=encyc_religion_2005/>
====AustralianKebudayaan culturesAustralia====
Beberapa orang Aborigin menggunakan sunat sebagai uji keberanian dan pengendalian diri sebagai bagian dari suatu ritus peralihan menuju kedewasaan, yang menghasilkan keanggotaan sosial dan seremonial penuh. Ini dapat disertai dengan [[skarifikasi]] tubuh dan [[pencabutan gigi]], dan diikuti kemudian oleh [[subinsisi penis]]. Sunat adalah salah satu dari banyak cobaan yang diwajibkan sebelum pemuda dianggap telah cukup berpengathuan luas untuk mempertahankan dan meneruskan tradisi budaya. Sunat juga sangat terkait dengan keluarga orang tersebut, dan juga bagian dari proses yang diperlukan untuk mempersiapkan seorang pria untuk mengambil istri dan memiliki keluarga sendiri.<ref name=encyc_religion_2005/>
Some Australian Aboriginies use circumcision as a test of bravery and self-control as a part of a rite of passage into manhood, which results in full societal and ceremonial membership. It may be accompanied by body [[scarification]] and the [[dental extraction|removal of teeth]], and may be followed later by [[penile subincision]]. Circumcision is one of many trials and ceremonies required before a youth is considered to have become knowledgeable enough to maintain and pass on the cultural traditions. During these trials, the maturing youth bonds in solidarity with the men. Circumcision is also strongly associated with a man's family, and it is part of the process required to prepare a man to take a wife and produce his own family.<ref name=encyc_religion_2005/>
===Ethical and legal issues===
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