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Ajaran sesat

doktrin keagamaan yang dianggap bertentangan dengan sistem keagamaan yang dianggap ortodoks atau ajaran yang benar
Revisi sejak 16 Mei 2007 10.31 oleh Landavia (bicara | kontrib) (→latar belakang cerita: membuka comentar..)

Ajaran sesat (bahasa Inggris: Heresy) atau Bidah atau kadangkala ditulis sebagai bid'ah, bid'aah (dari bahasa Arab ﺒﺪﻋﺔ yang secara harafiah berarti memulai), menurut Oxford English Dictionary, adalah "pandangan atau doktrin teologis atau keagamaan yang dianggap berlawanan atau bertentangan dengan doktrin Katolik atau Ortodoks Gereja Kristen, atau, dalam pengertian yang lebih luas, dari gereja, keyakinan, atau sistem keagamaan manapun, yang dianggap ortodoks atau ajaran yang benar. Dalam pengertian ini, ajaran sesat adalah pandangan atau doktrin dalam filsafat, politik, ilmu, seni, dll., yang berbeda dengan apa yang umumnya diakui sebagai yang berwibawa."

Etimologi

Kata "heresy" berasal dari bahasa Yunani αιρεσις, hairesis (dari αιρεομαι, haireomai, "memilih"), yang berarti pilihan keyakinan atau faksi dari pemeluk yang melawan. Kata ini banyak dipergunakan oleh Ireneus dalam risalatnya Contra Haereses (Melawan Penyesat) untuk menggambarkan dan mendiskreditkan lawan-lawannya dalam Gereja Kristen perdana. Ia menggambarkan posisinya sendiri sebagai yang ortodoks (dari ortho- "lurus" + doxa "pemikiran") dan posisinya akhirnya berkembang menjadi posisi Gereja Kristen perdana.

Jadi, ada anggapan bahwa "ajaran sesat" tidak mempunyai arti yang sepenuhnya obyektif. Kategori ini hanya ada sebagai kebalikan dari posisi suatu sekte yang sebelumnya telah didefinisikan sebagai "ortodoks". Jadi, setiap pandangan yang non konformis di dalam bidang apapun juga dapat dianggap "sesat" oleh yang lainnya di dalam bidang tersebut yang yakin bahwa pandangan mereka adalah yang "benar" (ortodoks).

Para penyesat biasanya tidak menganggap keyakinan mereka sesat. Menyebut sebuah ajaran itu "sesat" adalah suatu penghakiman yang tidak bebas nilai, karena hal itu dilakukan dari dalam suatu sistem kepercayaan yang mapan. Misalnya, orang Katolik Roma menganggap ajaran Protestan sesat, sementara orang non-Katolik menganggap ajaran Katolik sebagai "Kemurtadan Besar."

Agar sebuah ajarah sesat bisa ada, pertama-tama harus ada suatu sistem dogma yang berwibawa yang ditetapkan sebagai dogma yang ortodoks, seperti misalnya yang diusulkan oleh Gereja Katolik Roma. Istilah ortodoks digunakan di Gereja Ortodoks Timur, sejumlah Gereja Protestan, dalam Islam, sebagian denominasi Yahudi, dan dalam tingkat yang lebih rendah dalam agama-agama lain. Pandangan varian dari Marxisme-Leninisme yang ortodoks digambarkan sebagai "golongan kanan" atau "penyimpangan kiri". Gereja Scientology menggunakan istilah "squirelling" ("membajing") untuk merujuk kepada perubahan-perubahan yang tidak sah terhadap ajaran atau metodenya.

Bidah Agama

Islam

Bidaah dalam agama Islam berarti sebuah perbuatan yang tidak pernah diperintahkan maupun dicontohkan oleh Nabi Muhammad SAW tetapi banyak dilakukan oleh masyarakat sekarang ini. Hukum dari bidaah ini adalah haram. Perbuatan dimaksud ialah perbuatan baru atau penambahan dalam hubungannya dengan peribadatan dalam arti sempit (ibadah mahdhah), yaitu ibadah yang tertentu syarat dan rukunnya.

Pemakaian kata tersebut di antaranya ada pada :

  • Firman Allah ta’ala : بَدِيعُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالأَرْضِ
” (Dialah Allah) Pencipta langit dan bumi.” (Q.s.2:117)
  • Firman Allah ta’ala : قُلْ مَا كُنتُ بِدْعاً مِّنْ الرُّسُلِ
” Katakanlah (hai Muhammad), “ Aku bukanlah rasul yang pertama di antara rosul-rosul.” (Q.s:46:9)
  • Perkataan اِبتدع فلانٌ بدعة
Maknanya: Dia telah merintis suatu cara yang belum pernah ada yang mendahuluinya.
  • Perkataan هذاأمرٌبديعٌ
Maknanya: sesuatu yang dianggap baik yang kebaikannya belum pernah ada yang menyerupai sebelumnya. Dari makna bahasa seperti itulah pengertian bid’ah diambil oleh para ulama.
  1. Jadi membuat cara-cara baru dengan tujuan agar orang lain mengikuti disebut bid’ah (dalam segi bahasa).
  2. Sesuatu perkerjaan yang sebelumnya belum perna dikerjakan orang juga disebut bid’ah (dalam segi bahasa).
  3. Terlebih lagi suatu perkara yang disandarkan pada urusan ibadah (agama) tanpa adanya dalil syar’i (Al-Qur’an dan As-Sunnah) dan tidak ada contohnya (tidak ditemukan perkara tersebut) pada jaman Rosulullah shallallahu ‘alayhi wa sallam maka inilah makna bid’ah sesungguhnya.

Secara umum, bid'ah bermakna melawan ajaran asli suatu agama (artinya mencipta sesuatu yang baru dan disandarkan pada perkara agama/ibadah).

Para ulama telah memberikan beberapa definisi bidah. Definisi-definisi ini memiliki lafadl-lafadlnya berbeda-beda namun sebenarnya memiliki kandungan makna yang sama.

Syaikhul Islam Ibnu Taimiah,Bidah dalam agama adalah perkara yang dianggap wajib maupun sunnah namun yang Allah dan rasu-Nya tidak syariatkan. Adapun apa-apa yang Ia perintahkan baik perkara wajib maupun sunnah maka harus diketahui dengan dalil-dalil syriat.

Imam Syathibi, bid'ah dalam agama adalah Satu jalan dalam agama yang diciptakan menyamai syariat yang diniatkan dengan menempuhnya bersungguh-sungguh dalam beribadah kepada Allah.

Ibnu Rajab, Bidah adalah mengada-adakan suatu perkara yang tidak ada asalnya dalam syariat. Jika perkara-perkara baru tersebut bukan pada syariat maka bukanlah bidah, walaupun bisa dikatakan bidah secara bahasa

Suyuthi, beliau berkata, Bidah adalah sebuah ungkapan tentang perbuatan yang menentang syariat dengan suatu perselisihan atau suatu perbuatan yang menyebabkan menambah dan mengurangi ajaran syariat.

Dengan memperhatikan definisi-definisi ini akan nampak tanda-tanda yang mendasar bagi batasan bidah secara syariat yang dapat dimunculkan ke dalam beberapa point di bawah ini :

  1. Bahwa bidah adalah mengadakan suatu perkara yang baru dalam agama. Adapun mengadakan suatu perkara yang tidak diniatkan untuk agama tetapi semata diniatkan untuk terealisasinya maslahat duniawi seperti mengadakan perindustrian dan alat-alat sekedar untuk mendapatkan kemaslahatan manusia yang bersifat duniawi tidak dinamakan bidah.
  2. Bahwa bidah tidak mempunyai dasar yang ditunjukkan syariat. Adapun apa yang ditunjukkan oleh kaidah-kaidah syariat bukanlah bidah, walupun tidak ditentukan oleh nash secara husus. Misalnya adalah apa yang bisa kita lihat sekarang: orang yang membuat alat-lat perang seperti kapal terbang,roket, tank atau selain itu dari sarana-sarana perang modern yang diniatkan untuk mempersiapkan perang melawan orang-orang kafir dan membela kaum muslimin maka perbuatannya bukanlah bidah. Bersamaan dengan itu syariat tidak memberikan nash tertentu dan rasulullah tidak mempergunakan senjata itu ketika bertempur melawan orang-orang kafir. Namun demikian pembuatan alat-alat seperti itu masuk ke dalam keumuman firman Allah taala,Dan persiapkanlah oleh kalian untuk mereka (musuh-musuh) kekuatan yang kamu sanggupi.Demikian pula perbuatan-perbuatan lainnya. Maka setiap apa-apa yang mempunyai asal dalam sariat termasuk bagian dari syariat bukan perkara bidah.
  3. Bahwa bidah semuanya tercela.
  4. Bahwa bidah dalam agama terkadang menambah dan terkadang mengurangi syariat sebagaimana yang dikatakan oleh Suyuthi di samping dibutuhkan pembatasan yaitu apakah motivasi adanya penambahan itu agama. Adapun bila motivasi penambahan selain agama, bukanlah bidah. Contohnya meninggalkan perkara wajib tanpa udzur, maka perbuatan ini adalah tindakan maksiat bukan bidah. Demikian juga meninggalkan satu amalan sunnah tidak dinamakan bidah. Masalah ini akan diterangkan nanti dengan beberapa contohnya ketika membahas pembagian bidah. InsyaAllah.

Bidah merupakan pelanggaran yang sangat besar dari sisi melampaui batasan-batasan hukum Allah dalam membuat syariat, karena sangatlah jelas bahwa hal ini menyalahi dalam meyakini kesempurnaan syariat. Menuduh bahwa syariat masih kurang dan membutuhkan tambahan serta belum sempurna. Jadi secara umum dapat diketahui bahwa semua bid'ah dalam perkara ibadah/agama adalah haram atau dilarang sesuai kaedah ushul fiqih bahwa hukum asal ibadah adalah haram kecuali bila ada perintah dan tidaklah tepat pula penggunaan istilah bid'ah hasanah jika dikaitkan dengan ibadah atau agama sebagaimana pandangan orang banyak, namun masih relevan jika dikaitkan dengan hal-hal baru selama itu berupa urusan keduniawian murni misal dulu orang berpergian dengan unta sekarang dengan mobil, maka mobil ini adalah bid'ah namun bid'ah secara bahasa bukan definisi bid'ah secara istilah syariat dan contoh penggunaan mobil, mikrofon, pesawat terbang pada masa kini yang dulunya tidak ada inilah yang hakekatnya bid'ah hasanah.

Kristen

Penggunaan istilah bidah dalam konteks Kekristenan sudah jarang digunakan saat ini, dengan beberapa perkecualian: misalnya Rudolf Bultmann dan perdebatan tentang pentahbisan imam wanita dan para imam gay. Pandangan populer menurunkan "bidah" kepada Abad Pertengahan, saat puncak kekuasaan gereja di Eropa, tapi kasus seorang sarjana dan humanis Giordano Bruno bukanlah eksekusi terakhir untuk bidah. Bidaah mengingatkan akan sebuah hukuman resmi dalam negara-negara Katolik Roma hingga akhir abad 18. Di Spanyol, Kasus bidah telah didakwa dan dihukum sepanjang Counter-Enlightenment setelah Era Napoleonic.

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A concern for uniform practice of ritual, which Romans conceived as a duty entirely of a civic and public nature, distinguished the Roman approach to religion from the Greeks', where each locality preserved its archaic characteristics. Plutarch, in his Life of Numa Pompilius ascribes to the legendary King of Rome the institution of pontifex maximus which, from Plutarch's 2nd century AD point of view "was to declare and interpret the divine law, or, rather, to preside over sacred rites; he not only prescribed rules for public ceremony, but regulated the sacrifices of private persons, not suffering them to vary from established custom, and giving information to every one of what was requisite for purposes of worship or supplication."

The Romans welcomed new gods into the pantheon. But more important than belief in some or none of the gods was participation in Roman rituals. For example, Christians were not persecuted for believing in one God, nor were they persecuted for disbelieving in the pantheon of roman gods. Instead, they were persecuted because they refused to participate in civic and public rituals and duty, such as their refusal to burn incense to the Roman emperor. Deviation from the official norm amounted to impiety: heresy was foreign to the pagan worldview.

Early Christian heresies

Urgent concerns with the uniformity of belief and practice have characterized Christianity from the outset. The process of establishing orthodox Christianity was set in full swing when Paul wrote the epistles that comprise a large part of the New Testament. On many occasions in Paul's epistles, he defends his own apostleship, and urges Christians in various places to beware of false teachers, or of anything contrary to what was handed to them by him. The epistles of John and Jude also warn of false teachers, as does the writer of the Book of Revelation.

In the middle of the 2nd century, three unorthodox groups of Christians adhered to a range of doctrines that divided the Christian communities of Rome: the teacher Marcion, the pentecostal outpourings of ecstatic Christian prophets of a continuing revelation, in a movement that was called "Montanism" because it had been initiated by Montanus and his female disciples, and the gnostic teachings of Valentinus. Early attacks upon alleged heresies formed the matter of Tertullian's Prescription Against Heretics (in 44 chapters, written from Rome), and of Irenaeus' Against Heresies (ca 180, in five volumes), written in Lyon after his return from a visit to Rome. The letters of Ignatius of Antioch and Polycarp of Smyrna to various churches warned against false teachers, and the Epistle of Barnabas accepted by many Christians as part of Scripture in the 2nd century, warned about mixing Judaism with Christianity, as did other writers, leading to decisions reached in the first ecumenical council, which was convoked by the Emperor Constantine at Nicaea in 325, in response to further disruptive polemical controversy within the Christian community, in that case Arianist disputes over the nature of the Trinity.

During those first three centuries, Christianity was effectively outlawed by requirements to venerate the Roman emperor and Roman gods. Consequently, when the Church labeled its enemies as heretics and cast them out of its congregations or severed ties with dissident churches, it remained without the power to persecute them. However, those called "heretics" were also called a number of other things (e.g. "fools," "wild dogs," "servants of Satan"), so the word "heretic" had negative associations from the beginning, and intentionally so.

Before 325 AD, the "heretical" nature of some beliefs was a matter of much debate within the churches. After 325 AD, some opinion was formulated as dogma through the canons promulgated by the councils. Each phrase in the Nicene Creed, which was hammered out at the Council of Nicaea, addresses some aspect that had been under passionate discussion and closes the books on the argument, with the weight of the agreement of the over 300 bishops in attendance. [Constantine had invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (about 1000 in the east and 800 in the west). The number of participating bishops cannot be accurately stated; Socrates Scholasticus and Epiphanius of Salamis counted 318; Eusebius of Caesarea, only 250.] In spite of the agreement reached at the council of 325 the Arians who had been defeated dominated most of the church for the greater part of the fourth century, often with the aid of Roman emperors who favored them. In the East, the successful party of Cyril cast out Nestorius and his followers as heretics and collected and burned his writings.

Irenaeus was the first to argue that his "proto-orthodox" position was the same faith that Jesus gave to the apostles, and that the identity of the apostles, their successors, and the teachings of the same were all well-known public knowledge. This was therefore an early argument supported by apostolic succession. Irenaeus first established the doctrine of four gospels and no more, with the synoptic gospels interpreted in the light of John. Irenaeus' opponents, however, claimed to have received secret teachings from Jesus via other apostles which were not publicly known. (Gnosticism is predicated on the existence of such hidden knowledge, but brief references to private teachings of Jesus have also survived in the canonic Scripture.) Irenaeus' opponents also claimed that the wellsprings of divine inspiration were not dried up, which is the doctrine of continuing revelation.

The Hispanic ascetic Priscillian of Avila was the first person to be executed for heresy, only sixty years after the First Council of Nicaea, in 385. He was executed at the orders of Emperor Magnus Maximus, over the procedural objections of bishops Ambrose of Milan and Martin of Tours, who claimed the Churches' right to punish its own.

A number of the beliefs the Catholic Church has come to regard as heretical have to do with Christology, that is, with the nature of Jesus Christ and the relationship between Christ and God the Father. The orthodox teaching, as it developed, is that Christ was fully divine and at the same time fully human, and that the three persons of the Trinity are co-equal and co-eternal. This position, it should be noted, was not formally established as the orthodox position until it was challenged in the fourth century by Arius (Nicene creed in 325); nor was the New Testament put into its present form until the end of the 4th century (Athanasius first lists the 27 books we have in the current New Testament circa 367, but disputes continued; see Biblical Canon).

Over the years, numerous Christian scholars and preachers have disagreed with the Church on various issues or doctrines. When the Church has become aware of these beliefs, they have been condemned as heretical, and with the East-West Schism finalized in the 11th century, and the split in the Western Church in the 16th, each section has identified the others as "heretical". Historically, this often happened when the belief challenged, or was seen to challenge, Church authority, or drew a movement of followers who challenged the established order socially. Unfortunately, for entirely secular reasons, some influential people have had an interest in maintaining the status quo or condemning a group they wished to be removed. The Church's internal explanations for its actions were based purely on objection to beliefs and philosophies that ran contrary to its interpretation of scripture and its official interpretation of holy tradition.

See also Manichaeism, a pre-Christian religion that influenced early Christians, notably Augustine, often in ways held to be heretical.

Heresy in Catholicism

Heresy is defined by Thomas Aquinas as "a species of infidelity in men who, having professed the faith of Christ, corrupt its dogmas." The Catholic Church teaches that its doctrines are the authoritative understandings of the faith taught by Christ and that the Holy Spirit protects the Church from falling into error when teaching these doctrines. To deny one or more of those doctrines, therefore, is to deny the faith of Christ. Heresy is both the nonorthodox belief itself, and the act of holding to that belief.

While the term is often used by laymen to indicate any nonorthodox belief such as Paganism, by definition heresy can only be committed by someone who considers himself a Christian, but rejects the teachings of the Catholic Church. A person who completely renounces Christianity is not considered a heretic, but an apostate, and a person who renounces the authority of the Church but not its teachings is a schismatic.

The Church makes several distinctions as to the seriousness of an individual heterodoxy and its closeness to true heresy. Only a belief that directly contravenes an Article of Faith, or that has been explicitly rejected by the Church, is labelled as actual "heresy."

Canon 751 of the Catholic Church's Code of Canon Law promulgated by Pope John Paul II in 1983 (abbreviated "C.I.C." for Codex Iuris Canonici), the little-known juridical systematization of ancient law currently binding the world's one billion Latin Rite Catholics, defines heresy as the following: "Heresy is the obstinate denial or doubt after the reception of baptism of some truth which is to be believed by divine and Catholic faith." The essential elements of canonical heresy therefore technically comprise 1) obstinacy, or continuation in time; 2) denial (a proposition contrary or contradictory in formal logic to a dogma) or doubt (a posited opinion, not being a firm denial, of the contrary or contradictory proposition to a dogma); 3) after reception of valid baptism; 4) of a truth categorized as being of "Divine and Catholic Faith," meaning contained directly within either Sacred Scripture or Sacred Tradition per Can. 750 par. 1 C.I.C. ("de fide divina") AND proposed as 'de fide divina' by either a Pope having spoken solemnly "ex cathedra" on his own (example: dogmatic definition of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in 1950), or defined solemnly by an Ecumenical Council in unison with a Pope (ex: the definition of the Divinity of Christ in the Council of Chalcedon) ("de fide catholica").

An important distinction is that between formal and material heresy. The difference is one of the heretic's subjective belief about his opinion. The heretic who is aware that his belief is at odds with Catholic teaching and yet continues to cling to his belief pertinaciously is a formal heretic. This sort of heresy is sinful because in this case the heretic knowingly holds an opinion that, in the words of the first edition of the Catholic Encyclopedia, "is destructive of the virtue of Christian faith . . . disturbs the unity, and challenges the Divine authority, of the Church" and "strikes at the very source of faith." Material heresy, on the other hand, means that the individual is unaware that his heretical opinion denies, in the words of Canon 751, "some truth which is to be believed by divine and Catholic faith." The opinion of a material heretic is still heresy, and it produces the same objective results as formal heresy, but because of his ignorance he commits no sin by holding it.

The penalty for a baptized Catholic above the age of 18 who obstinately, publicly, and voluntarily manifests his or her adherence to an objective heresy is automatic excommunication ("latae sententiae") according to Can. 1364 par.1 C.I.C..

A belief that the church has not directly rejected, or that is at variance with less important church teachings, is given the label, sententia haeresi proxima, meaning "opinion approaching heresy." A theological argument, belief, or theory that does not constitute heresy in itself, but which leads to conclusions which might be held to do so, is termed propositio theologice erronea, or "erroneous theological proposition." Finally, if the theological position only suggests but does not necessarily lead to a doctrinal conflict, it might be given the even milder label of sententia de haeresi suspecta, haeresim sapiens, meaning "opinion suspected, or savoring, of heresy."

Some significant controversies of doctrine have risen over the course of history. At times there have been many heresies over single points of doctrine, particularly in regard to the nature of the Trinity, the doctrine of transubstantiation and the immaculate conception.

Types of heretics
  1. the heretic impenitent and not relapsed (for the first time)
  2. the heretic impenitent and relapsed (for the first time was penitent now is impenitent)
  3. the heretic penitent and relapsed (for the first time was penitent now is penitent too, but relapsing was the capital offence)
  4. the heretic negative (who denied his crime)
  5. the heretic contumacious (who absconded)

Since the Church doesn't thirst for blood (ecclesia non sitit sanguinem), the first four types were all delivered over to the secular arm. The state usually immediately punished heresy with death sentence. The longest delay could be five days. The custom that the impenitent heretics (the first two types) were cast into the flames alive and the penitent (the third type) were first strangled or hanged and then burned was not always observed.


Catholic response to heresy

The Church has always fought in favor of orthodoxy and the Pope's authority as the successor of St. Peter to determine truth. At various times in history, it has had varying degrees of power to resist or punish heretics, once it had defined them.

In the early church, heresies were sometimes determined by a selected council of bishops, or ecumenical council, such as the First Council of Nicaea and promulgated by the Pope and the bishops under him. The orthodox position was established at the council, and all who failed to adhere to it would thereafter be considered heretics. The church had little power to actually punish heretics in the early years, other than by excommunication. To those who accepted it, an excommunication was the worst form of punishment possible, as it separated the individual from the body of Christ, his Church, and, if the sentence accurately reflected God's judgement, meant the denial of salvation. Excommunication, or even the threat of excommunication, was enough to convince many a heretic to renounce his views. Priscillian achieved the distinction of becoming the first Christian burned alive for heresy in 385 at Treves.

In later years, the Church instituted the Inquisition, an official body charged with the suppression of heresy. The Inquisition was active in several nations of Europe, particularly where it had fervent support from the civil authority. The Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229) was part of the Catholic Church's efforts to crush the Cathars. It is linked to the movement now known as the Medieval Inquisition. The Spanish Inquisition was particularly brutal in its methods, which included the burning at the stake of many heretics. However, it was initiated and substantially controlled by King Ferdinand of Spain rather than the Church; King Ferdinand used political leverage to obtain the Church's tacit approval. Another example of a medieval heretic (according to some, proto-Protestant) movement is the Hussite movement in the Czech lands in the early 1400s.

It is widely reported that the last person to be burned alive at the stake on orders from Rome was Giordano Bruno, executed in 1600 for a collection of heretical beliefs including Copernicanism and (probably more important) an unlimited universe with innumerable inhabited worlds. The last case of an execution at an auto de fe by the Spanish Inquisition was the schoolmaster Cayetano Ripoll, accused of deism and executed by garroting July 26, 1826 in Valencia after a two-year trial.

The development of the printing press greatly hampered the ability of the church to suppress dissidents, with the result that Martin Luther was able to successfully fight the Papacy and forge the Protestant Reformation.


Modern Catholic response to Protestantism

The Catholic Church, in the spirit of ecumenism, tends not to refer to Protestantism as a heresy nowadays, even if the teachings of Protestantism are indeed heretical from a Catholic perspective. Modern usage favors referring to Protestants as "separated brethren" rather than "heretics", although the latter is still on occasion used vis-a-vis Catholics who abandon their Church to join a Protestant denomination. Many Catholics consider Protestantism to be material rather than formal heresy, and thus non-culpable.

Some of the doctrines of Protestantism that the Catholic Church considers heretical are the belief that the Bible is the only source and rule of faith ("sola scriptura"), that faith alone can lead to salvation ("sola fide") and that there is no sacramental, ministerial priesthood attained by ordination, but only a universal priesthood of all believers, as first introduced by Luther.


Protestantism and heresy

The main meaning of 'heresy' to a Protestant is the concept of telling lies about God. It is not at its core a matter of opposing the authorities (though, like all authorities religious or otherwise, Protestant leaders often invoke the concepts of heresy and apostasy to defend themselves from attack). Protestants chose the difficult course of action, to try to steer a middle course between (1) respecting God enough to care that humans tell the truth about God, and (2) being tolerant and loving of those who honestly see things differently, giving them an open ear because there might be something to learn from them. Protestants who seek to reestablish what they see as ancestral Christian principles -- i.e. Fundamentalists -- sometimes refer to Catholicism (or indeed other Protestant groups) as heretical. One aspect of Catholicism many Protestants regard as heresy against original Christianity is the veneration of the saints, and in particular the cultus of the Virgin Mary. Another is the doctrine of transubstantiation, the event where the bread and wine at Mass becomes the Body and Blood of Christ.


Heresy in Judaism

Orthodox Judaism considers views departing from the traditional Jewish principles of faith to be heretical. In addition, Orthodox Judaism holds that all Jews who reject the simple meaning of Maimonides's 13 principles of Jewish faith are heretics. As such, most of Orthodox Judaism considers Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism to be heretical movements, and regards most of Conservative Judaism as heretical. The liberal wing of Modern Orthodoxy is more tolerant of Conservative Judaism, particularly its right wing, as there is some theological and practical overlap between these groups.

The Greek term άίρεσις originally denoted "division," "sect," "religious" or "philosophical party," and is applied by Josephus to the three Jewish sects — Sadducees, Pharisees, and Essenes. The specific rabbinical term for heresies, or religious divisions due to an unlawful spirit, is "מינים/minim" (lit. "kinds {of belief}"; the singular "מין/min," (literally, "a kind") for "heretic" or "Gnostic," is coined idiomatically, like "goy" and "'am ha-aretz";). An alternative term, אפיקורוס (Apiqoros/Apikoros), which is often used for apostates who turned towards agnosticism or atheism, is derived from Epicurus and the philosophy of Epicureanism.

The law "You shall not cut yourselves" (Deuteronomy 14:2) is interpreted by the Rabbis: "You shall not form divisions, but shall form one bond." (Source: Talmud Yevamot 13a, Midrash Sifre on Deuteronomy 96)

Besides the term "min" for "heretic," the Talmud uses the words "Hitsonim" (outsiders), "apikoros," and "kofer ba-Torah" (R. H. 17a), or "kofeir ba-'ikar" (he who denies the fundamentals of faith; Pes. xxiv. 168b); also "poresh mi-darke tsibbur" (he who deviates from the customs of the community; Tosef., Sanh. xiii. 5; R. H. 17a). Of all these it is said that they are consigned to Gehinnom for all eternity (Tosef., Sanh. l.c.; comp. ib. xii. 9, apparently belonging to xiii. 5: "He who casts off the yoke [of the Law], and he who severs the Abrahamic covenant; he who interprets the Torah against the halakic tradition, and he who pronounces in full the Ineffable Name—all these have no share in the world to come").

The Mishnah says the following have no share in the world to come: "He who denies that the Torah is divinely revealed, and the apiḳoros." R. Akiba says, "also he who reads heretical books". This is explained in the Talmud (Sanh. 100b) to mean "sifre Ẓeduḳim" (Sadducean writings); but this is an alteration by the censor of "sifre ha-Minim" (books of the Gnostics or Heretics). The Biblical version, "That ye seek not after your own heart" (Num. xv. 39), is explained (Sifre, Num. 115; Ber. 12b) as "Ye shall not turn to heretic views ["minut"] which lead your heart away from God" (see Maimonides, "Yad," 'Akkum, ii. 3).

In summarizing the Talmudic statements concerning heretics in Sanh. 90-103, Maimonides ("Yad," Teshubah, iii. 6-8) says:

"The following have no share in the world to come, but are cut off, and perish, and receive their punishment for all time for their great sin: the minim, the apiḳoresim, they that deny the belief in the Torah, they that deny the belief in resurrection of the dead and in the coming of the Redeemer, the apostates, they that lead many to sin, they that turn away from the ways of the [Jewish] community... Five are called 'minim': (1) he who says there is no God and the world has no guide; (2) he who says the world has more than one guide; (3) he who ascribes to the Lord of the Universe a body and a figure; (4) he who says that God was not alone and Creator of all things at the world's beginning; (5) he who worships some star or constellation as an intermediating power between himself and the Lord of the World.

"The following three classes are called 'apiḳoresim': (1) he who says there was no prophecy nor was there any wisdom that came from God and which was attained by the heart of man; (2) he who denies the prophetic power of Moses our master; (3) he who says that God has no knowledge concerning the doings of men.

"The following three are called 'koferim ba-Torah': (1) he who says the Torah is not from God: he is a kofer even if he says a single verse or letter thereof was said by Moses of his own accord; (2) he who denies the traditional interpretation of the Torah and opposes those authorities who declare it to be tradition, as did Zadok and Boethus; and (3) he who says, as do the Nazarenes and the Mohammedans, that the Lord has given a new dispensation instead of the old, and that he has abolished the Law, though it was originally divine."

It is noteworthy, however, that Abraham ben David, in his critical notes, objects to Maimonides characterizing as heretics all those who attribute corporeality to God; and he insinuates that the Kabbalists are not heretics. In the same sense all Biblical critics who, like Ibn Ezra in his notes on Deut. i. 2, doubt or deny the Mosaic origin of every portion of the Pentateuch, would protest against this Maimonidean (or Talmudic; see Sanh. 99a) conception of heresy. See Apikoros; Articles of Faith; Judaism; Gnosticism. K.


Legal status

The status of heretics in Jewish law is not clearly defined. While there are certain regulations scattered throughout the Talmud concerning the minim, the nearest approach to the English term "heretic," these are mostly of a haggadic nature, the codes taking little cognizance of them. The governing bodies of the Synagogue frequently exercised, from motives of self-defense, their power of excommunication against heretics. The heretic was excluded from a portion in the world to come (Maimonides, "Yad," Teshubah, iii. 6-14); he was consigned to Gehenna, to eternal punishment (R. H. 17a; comp. Ex. R. xix. 5; see Apikoros, and compare D. Hoffmann, "Der Schulchan Aruch und die Rabbinen über das Verhältnis der Juden zu Andersgläubigen," 2d ed., Berlin, 1894); but the Jewish courts of justice never attended to cases of heresy; they were left to the judgment of the community.

There are, however, in the rabbinic codes, laws and regulations concerning the relation of the Jew to the heretic. The sentiment against the heretic was much stronger than that against the pagan. While the pagan brought his offerings to the Temple in Jerusalem and the priests accepted them, the sacrifices of the heretic were not accepted (Ḥul. 13b, et al.). The relatives of the heretic did not observe the laws of mourning after his death, but donned festive garments, and ate and drank and rejoiced (Sem. ii. 10; "Yad," Ebel, i. 5, 6; Yoreh De'ah, 345, 5). Scrolls of the Law, tefillin, and mezuzot written by a heretic were burned (Git. 45b; Shulḥan 'Aruk, Oraḥ Ḥayyim, 39, 1; Yoreh De'ah, 281, 1); and an animal slaughtered by a heretic was forbidden food (Ḥul. 13a; Yoreh De'ah, 2, 5). Books written by heretics did not render the hands impure ("Yad," She'ar Abot ha-Tum'ot, ix. 10; comp. Yad. iv. 6; see Purity); they might not be saved from fire on the Sabbath (Shab. 116a; Oraḥ Ḥayyim, 334, 21). A heretic's testimony was not admitted in evidence in Jewish courts (Ḥoshen Mishpat, 34, 22; see "Be'er ha-Golah" ad loc.); and if an Israelite found an object belonging to a heretic, he was forbidden to return it to him (Ḥoshen Mishpat 266, 2). 


Classes of heretics

The "mumar le-hak'is" (one who transgresses the Law, not for personal advantage, but out of defiance and spite) was placed by some of the Rabbis in the same category as the minim ('Ab. Zarah 26a; Hor. 11a). Even if he habitually transgressed one law only (for example, if he defiantly violated one of the dietary laws), he was not allowed to perform any religious function (Yoreh De'ah, 2, 5; SHaK and "Pitḥe Teshubah," ad loc.), nor could he testify in a Jewish court (Sanh. 27a; "Yad," 'Edut, x. 3; Ḥoshen Mishpat, 34, 2). One who violated the Sabbath publicly or worshiped idols could not participate in the "'erub ḥaẓerot" ('Er. 69a; "Yad," 'Erubin, ii. 16; Orach Ḥayyim, 385, 3; see 'Erub), nor could he write a bill of divorce (Shulḥan 'Aruk, Eben ha-'Ezer, 123, 2). One who would not permit himself to be circumcised could not perform the ceremony on another (Yoreh De'ah, 264, 1, Isserles' gloss). While the court could not compel the mumar to divorce his wife, even though she demanded it, it compelled him to support her and her children and to pay her an allowance until he agreed to a divorce (Eben ha-'Ezer, 154, 1, and "Pitḥe Teshubah," ad loc.). At his death those who are present need not tear their garments (Yoreh De'ah, 340, 5, and "Pitche Teshubah," ad loc.). The mumar who repented and desired readmittance into the community was obliged to take a ritual bath, the same as the proselyte (Yoreh De'ah, 268, 12, Isserles' gloss, and "Pitche Teshubah," ad loc.; comp. "Sefer Hasidim," ed. Wistinetzki, §§ 200-209). If he claimed to be a good Jew, although he was alleged to have worshiped idols in another town, he was believed when no benefit could have accrued to him from such a course. 


Heresy in Islam

The two main bodies of Islam are the Sunnis and the Shi'as. These main denominations view each other as heretical. Groups like the Sufis, the Harufi and the Bektashi are sometimes regarded as heretical. Although Sufism is often accepted as valid by Sunnis, fundamentalist Sunni movements like Wahhabism view it as heretical.

Both the Ahmadiyya and the Nation of Islam are regarded by many Muslim Ulema as being apostate, but in the case of the Ahmadiyya movement, attitudes towards designating the sect apostatical, heretical or Islamic differ depending on region or Islamic schools of thought. In Pakistan, where most Ahmadis live, the state consider the group to be apostatical; whereas in the neighbouring state of Iran, the same group is considered to fall within the bounds of Islamic belief. Another example concerning the Ahmadiyya movement is group is the Al-Azhar Islamic University in Egypt, which accepts a certain Ahmadi belief concerning the nature of prophethood in Islam, which is considered by other schools as being heretical, to fall within Islamic jurisdiction. 

Contemporary heresy

Today, heresy can be without a religious context as the holding of ideas that are in fundamental disagreement with the status quo in any practice and branch of knowledge. Religion is not a necessary component of the term's definition. [1] For example, Charles Darwin of natural selection fame was considered a heretic of his day. Other people considered heretics were Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein, Leonardo da Vinci, Copernicus, and many others. The revisionist paleontologist Robert T. Bakker, who published his findings as The Dinosaur Heresies, jokingly treated the mainstream view of dinosaurs as the dogma of a religion.

The term heresy is also used as an ideological pigeonhole for contemporary writers because by definition heresy depends on contrasts with an established orthodoxy. For example, the tongue-in-cheek contemporary usage of heresy, such as to categorize a "Wall Street heresy" or a "Republican heresy", are metaphors which invariably retain a subtext that links orthodoxies in geology or biology or any other field to the dogmas of religion (although religion may not necessarily appear as an explicit component). Heresy, in these expanded metaphoric senses, is intended to allude to both the difference between the person's views and the mainstream, and the boldness of such a person in propounding these views, despite their unpopularity or even forceful opposition.

In modern American history, the term heresy has been applied in the United States to the position of those Catholic politicians and voters who publicly and obstinately profess the civil right to choose abortion. In July 2004, the group De Fide achieved wide notoriety when it coined the expression "Right-to-Murder Heresy" in reference to abortion. It and 3,000 other Catholics filed the first "class-action" denunciation for heresy against Senator John F. Kerry, soon followed by more denunciations against four other well-known Republican and Democrat senators also pro-choice.

Following those events, in February 2006, Bishop Robert F. Vasa of the Diocese of Baker, Oregon widened the national debate by becoming the first sitting Roman Catholic Ordinary to publicly raise the question of heresy in reference to those who support or vote in favor of abortion.

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