Wikipedia

Stres psikologis

perasaan tegang dan tertekan secara psikologis, yang dapat meningkatkan risiko stroke, serangan jantung, maag, dan penyakit mental seperti depresi dan memperburuk kondisi yang sudah ada sebelumnya
Revisi sejak 22 Maret 2021 04.53 oleh Shinochino (bicara | kontrib) (Memperbaiki referensi)

Dalam psikologi, "stres" adalah perasaan ketegangan dan tekanan emosional. [1] Stres adalah salah satu jenis penderitaan psikologis. Sedikit stres mungkin diinginkan, bermanfaat, dan bahkan menyehatkan. Stres positif membantu meningkatkan kinerja atletik. Ini juga berperan dalam motivasi, adaptasi, dan reaksi terhadap lingkungan. Jumlah stres yang berlebihan, bagaimanapun, dapat menyebabkan kerusakan tubuh. Stres dapat meningkatkan risiko stroke, serangan jantung, ulkus, dan penyakit mental seperti depresi [2] dan juga memperburuk kondisi yang sudah ada sebelumnya.

Stres dapat bersifat eksternal dan terkait dengan lingkungan,[3] tetapi juga dapat disebabkan oleh persepsi internal yang menyebabkan seseorang mengalami kegelisahan atau emosi negatif lainnya di sekitar suatu situasi, seperti tekanan, ketidaknyamanan, dll., yang kemudian mereka anggap menimbulkan stres.

Hans Selye (1974) mengusulkan empat variasi stres.[4] Pada satu sumbu ia menempatkan stres baik (eustress) dan stres buruk (distress). Di sisi lain adalah over-stress (hyperstress) dan understress (hypostress). Selye menganjurkan untuk menyeimbangkan ini: tujuan akhirnya adalah menyeimbangkan hyperstress dan hypostress dengan sempurna dan memiliki sebanyak mungkin eustress.[5]

Istilah "eustress" berasal dari akar kata Yunani eu- yang berarti "baik" (seperti dalam "euforia").[6] Eustress terjadi ketika seseorang melihat stresor sebagai hal yang positif.[7] "Distress" berasal dari bahasa Latin dis- (seperti dalam "disonansi" atau "ketidaksepakatan").[6] Kesulitan yang didefinisikan secara medis merupakan ancaman bagi kualitas hidup. Itu terjadi ketika permintaan jauh melebihi kemampuan seseorang.[7] Stres dapat menyebabkan sakit kepala.[8]

Penyebab

Pengukuran

Manusia modern mungkin mencoba menilai "tingkat stres" mereka sendiri; pihak ketiga (terkadang dokter) juga dapat memberikan evaluasi kualitatif. Pendekatan kuantitatif memberikan hasil yang mungkin berkorelasi dengan stres psikologis yang dirasakan termasuk pengujian untuk satu atau lebih dari beberapa hormon stres,[9] untuk respon kardiovaskular,[10] atau untuk respon imun.[11]

Efek fisik

Dampak sosial

Management

"Stress Relief" beralih ke halaman ini. Untuk The Office episode, lihat Stress Relief (The Office).
"Stress Reliever" beralih ke halaman ini. Untuk the track, lihat R.E.D. (Ne-Yo album).

Stress management mengacu pada berbagai teknik dan psikoterapi yang ditujukan untuk mengendalikan tingkat stres seseorang, terutama stres kronis, biasanya untuk tujuan meningkatkan fungsi sehari-hari. Ini melibatkan pengendalian dan pengurangan ketegangan yang terjadi dalam situasi stres dengan membuat perubahan emosional dan fisik.

Pencegahan dan pembangunan ketahanan

Penurunan perilaku stres merupakan bagian dari pencegahan. Beberapa strategi dan teknik yang umum adalah: pemantauan diri, penyesuaian, penguatan materi, penguatan sosial, dukungan sosial, kontrak diri, kontrak dengan orang penting lainnya, pembentukan, pengingat, kelompok bantuan mandiri, dan bantuan profesional. [12][perlu dijelaskan]

Meskipun banyak teknik secara tradisional telah dikembangkan untuk menangani konsekuensi stres, banyak penelitian juga telah dilakukan pada pencegahan stres, subjek yang terkait erat dengan pembentukan ketahanan psikologis. Sejumlah pendekatan swadaya untuk pencegahan stres dan pembangunan ketahanan telah dikembangkan, terutama berdasarkan teori dan praktik terapi perilaku-kognitif.[13]

Biofeedback juga dapat berperan dalam manajemen stres. Sebuah studi acak oleh Sutarto et al. menilai efek biofeedback pernapasan resonan (mengenali dan mengontrol variabilitas denyut jantung tak sadar) di antara operator manufaktur; depresi, kecemasan dan stres menurun secara signifikan.[14]

Berolahraga untuk mengurangi stres

Studies have shown that exercise reduces stress.[6] Exercise effectively reduces fatigue, improves sleep, enhances overall cognitive function such as alertness and concentration, decreases overall levels of tension, and improves self-esteem.[6] Because many of these are depleted when an individual experiences chronic stress, exercise provides an ideal coping mechanism. Despite popular belief, it is not necessary for exercise to be routine or intense in order to reduce stress; as little as five minutes of aerobic exercise can begin to stimulate anti-anxiety effects.[6] Further, a 10-minute walk may have the same psychological benefits as a 45-minute workout, reinforcing the assertion that exercise in any amount or intensity will reduce stress.[6]

Penjelasan teoritis

A multitude of theories have been presented in attempts to explain why exercise effectively reduces stress. One theory, known as the time-out hypothesis, claims that exercise provides distraction from the stressor. The time out hypothesis claims that exercise effectively reduces stress because it gives individuals a break from their stressors. This was tested in a recent study of college women who had identified studying as their primary stressor.[7] The women were then placed under four conditions at varying times: "rest," "studying," "exercising," and "studying while exercising." The stress levels of the participants were measured through self-assessments of stress and anxiety symptoms after each condition. The results demonstrated that the "exercise" condition had the most significant reduction in stress and anxiety symptoms.[7] These results demonstrate the validity of the time-out hypothesis.[7] It is also important to note that exercise provided greater stress reduction than rest.

Coping mechanisms

Artikel utama: Coping (psychology)

The Lazarus and Folkman model suggests that external events create a form of pressure to achieve, engage in, or experience a stressful situation. Stress is not the external event itself, but rather an interpretation and response to the potential threat; this is when the coping process begins.[15]

There are various ways individuals deal with perceived threats that may be stressful. However, people have a tendency to respond to threats with a predominant coping style, in which they dismiss feelings, or manipulate the stressful situation.[15]

There are different classifications for coping, or defense mechanisms, however they all are variations on the same general idea: There are good/productive and negative/counterproductive ways to handle stress. Because stress is perceived, the following mechanisms do not necessarily deal with the actual situation that is causing an individual stress. However, they may be considered coping mechanisms if they allow the individual to cope better with the negative feelings/anxiety that they are experiencing due to the perceived stressful situation, as opposed to actually fixing the concrete obstacle causing the stress. The following mechanisms are adapted from the DSM-IV Adaptive Functioning Scale, APA, 1994.

Highly adaptive/active/problem-focused mechanisms

These skills are what one could call as “facing the problem head on”, or at least dealing with the negative emotions experienced by stress in a constructive manner. (generally adaptive)

  • Affiliation ("tend and befriend") – involves dealing with stress by turning to a social network for support, but an individual does not share with others in order to diffuse or avoid the responsibility.[16][17]
  • Humour – the individual steps outside of a situation in order to gain greater perspective, and also to highlight any comic aspect to be found in their stressful circumstances.[16]
 
Coping through laughter
“The Association for Applied and Therapeutic Humour defines therapeutic humour as ‘any intervention that promotes health and wellness by stimulating a playful discovery, expression or appreciation of the absurdity of or incongruity of life’s situations. This intervention may enhance health or be used as a complementary treatment of illness to facilitate healing or coping whether physical, emotional, cognitive, or spiritual”.[18]
Sigmund Freud, a well known neurologist, suggests the humour was an excellent defensive strategy in emotional situations.[15] When one laughs during a tough situation they feel absent from their worries, and this allows them to think differently.[18] When one experiences a different mind set, they feel more in control of their response, and how they would go about dealing with the event that caused stress.
Lefcourt (2001) suggests that this perspective-taking humour is the most effective due to its ability to distance oneself from the situation of great stress.[19] Studies show that the use of laughter and humour creates a sense of relief of stress that can last up to 45 minutes post-laughter.[18]
Also, most hospitalized children have been seen to use laughter and play to relieve their fear, pain and stress. It has been discovered that there is a great importance in the use of laughter and humour in stress coping.[18] Humans should use humour as a means to transcend their original understanding of an external event, take a different perspective, in which their anxiety may be minimized by.
  • Sublimation – allows an "indirect resolution of conflict with neither adverse consequences nor consequences marked by loss of pleasure."[20] Essentially, this mechanism allows channeling of troubling emotions or impulses into an outlet that is socially acceptable.
  • Positive reappraisal – redirects thoughts (cognitive energy) to good things that are either occurring or have not occurred. This can lead to personal growth, self-reflection, and awareness of the power/benefits of one's efforts.[21] For example, studies on veterans of war or peacekeeping operations indicate that persons who construe a positive meaning from their combat or threat experiences tend to adjust better than those who do not.[22]

The final path model fitted well (CF1 = 1, RMSEA = 0.00) and showed that direct quality of life paths with β = -0.2, and indirect social support with β = -0.088 had the most effects on reduction of stress during pregnancy.[non sequitur] Other adaptive coping mechanisms include anticipation, altruism, and self-observation.

Mental inhibition/disavowal mechanisms

These mechanisms cause the individual to have a diminished (or in some cases non-existent) awareness about their anxiety, threatening ideas, fears, etc., that come from being conscious of the perceived threat.

  • Displacement – This is when an individual redirects their emotional feelings about one situation to another, less threatening one.[23]
  • Repression – Repression occurs when an individual attempts to remove all their thoughts, feelings, and anything related to the upsetting/stressful (perceived) threat out of their awareness in order to be disconnected from the entire situation. When done long enough in a successful way, this is more than just denial.
  • Reaction formation – An attempt to remove any “unacceptable thoughts” from one's consciousness by replacing them with the exact opposite.[24]

Other inhibition coping mechanisms include undoing, dissociation, denial, projection, and rationalization. Although some people claim that inhibition coping mechanisms may eventually increase the stress level because the problem is not solved, detaching from the stressor can sometimes help people to temporarily release the stress and become more prepared to deal with problems later on.

Active mechanisms

These methods deal with stress by an individual literally taking action, or withdrawing.

  • Acting out – Often viewed as counter-normative, or problematic behavior. Instead of reflecting or problem-solving, an individual takes maladaptive action.[17]
  • Passive aggression – When an individual indirectly deals with their anxiety and negative thoughts/feelings stemming from their stress by acting in a hostile or resentful manner towards others. Help-Rejecting Complaining can also be included in this category.

Health promotion

There is an alternative method to coping with stress, in which one works to minimize their anxiety and stress in a preventative manner. If one works towards coping with stress daily, the feeling of stress and the ways in which one deals with it as the external event arises becomes less of a burden.

Suggested strategies to improve stress management include:[25]

  1. Regular exercise – set up a fitness program, 3–4 times a week
  2. Support systems – to listen, offer advice, and support each other
  3. Time management – develop an organizational system
  4. Guided imagery and visualization – create a relaxing state of mind
  5. Progressive muscle relaxation – loosen tense muscle groups
  6. Assertiveness training – work on effective communication
  7. Journal writing – express true emotion, self-reflection
  8. Stress management in the workplace – organize a new system, switch tasks to reduce own stress.

Depending on the situation, all of these coping mechanisms may be adaptive, or maladaptive.

Sejarah

Sebelum pengenalan konsep "stres" dalam pengertian psikologis c. 1955,[26][27] orang telah mengidentifikasi berbagai ide yang lebih bernuansa untuk menggambarkan dan menghadapi emosi seperti kekhawatiran, kesedihan, perhatian,[28] obsesi, ketakutan, kejengkelan, kegelisahan, kesusahan, penderitaan dan semangat.[29] "Stres" kemudian menjadi andalan dalam psikologi pop.[30][31]

Lihat juga

Referensi

  1. ^ "Stress". Mental Health America. 2013-11-18. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-22. 
  2. ^ Sapolsky, Robert M. (2004). Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers. 175 Fifth Ave, New York, N.Y.: St. Martins Press. hlm. 37, 71, 92, 271. ISBN 978-0-8050-7369-0. 
  3. ^ Jones, Fiona; Bright, Jim; Clow, Angela (2001). Stress: Myth, Theory and Research (dalam bahasa Inggris). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-041189-1. 
  4. ^ Selye, Hans (1974). Stress without distress. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company. hlm. 171. ISBN 978-0-397-01026-4. 
  5. ^ Selye, Hans (1983). "The Stress Concept: Past, Present and Future". Dalam Cooper, C. L. Stress Research Issues for the Eighties. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. hlm. 1–20. ISBN 978-0-471-10246-5. 
  6. ^ a b c d e f Selye, H. (1975-10). "Implications of stress concept". New York State Journal of Medicine. 75 (12): 2139–2145. ISSN 0028-7628. PMID 1059917.  Kesalahan pengutipan: Tanda <ref> tidak sah; nama ":0" didefinisikan berulang dengan isi berbeda
  7. ^ a b c d e Le Fevre, Mark; Kolt, Gregory S.; Matheny, Jonathan (2006-01-01). "Eustress, distress and their interpretation in primary and secondary occupational stress management interventions: which way first?". Journal of Managerial Psychology. 21 (6): 547–565. doi:10.1108/02683940610684391. ISSN 0268-3946.  Kesalahan pengutipan: Tanda <ref> tidak sah; nama ":1" didefinisikan berulang dengan isi berbeda
  8. ^ Chen, Yaniv (2009-12-09). "Advances in the pathophysiology of tension-type headache: From stress to central sensitization". Current Pain and Headache Reports (dalam bahasa Inggris). 13 (6): 484–494. doi:10.1007/s11916-009-0078-x. ISSN 1534-3081. PMID 19889292. 
  9. ^ Lundberg, Ulf (2010). "Neuroendocrine Measures". Dalam Contrada, Richard; Baum, Andrew. The Handbook of Stress Science: Biology, Psychology, and Health (dalam bahasa Inggris). New York: Springer Publishing Company. hlm. 531. ISBN 978-0-8261-1771-7. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-22. [...] epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol are considered the most important 'stress hormones,' although a number of other hormones are also influenced by stress [...]. 
  10. ^ Krantz, David S.; Falconer, Jennifer F.; Gordon, Lynn Underwood (1997). "Measurement of cardiovascular responses". Dalam Cohen, Sheldon; Kessler, Ronald C.; Underwood Gordon, Lynn. Measuring Stress: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists. A project of the Fetzer Institute (dalam bahasa Inggris) (edisi ke-revised). New York: Oxford University Press. hlm. 193–212. ISBN 978-0-19-512120-9. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-22. 
  11. ^ Kiecolt-Glaser, Janice; Glaser, Ronald (1997). "Measurement of immune response". Dalam Cohen, Sheldon; Kessler, Ronald C.; Underwood Gordon, Lynn. Measuring Stress: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists. A project of the Fetzer Institute (dalam bahasa Inggris). New York: Oxford University Press. hlm. 213–230. ISBN 978-0-19-512120-9. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-22. 
  12. ^ Greenberg. Comprehensive Stress Management 10E. McGraw-Hill Education. hlm. 261–. ISBN 978-0-07-067104-1. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2017-02-18. 
  13. ^ Robertson, D (2012). Build your Resilience. London: Hodder. ISBN 978-1-4441-6871-6. 
  14. ^ Purwandini Sutarto, Auditya; Abdul Wahab, Muhammad Nubli; Mat Zin, Nora (2015). "Resonant Breathing Biofeedback Training for Stress Reduction Among Manufacturing Operators". International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics. 18 (4): 549–61. doi:10.1080/10803548.2012.11076959  . PMID 23294659. [butuh sumber nonprimer]
  15. ^ a b c Snyder, C.R.; Lefcourt, Herbert M. (2001). Coping With Stress. New York: Oxford University. hlm. 68–88. 
  16. ^ a b Levo, Lynn M. (2003, September.) Understanding Defense Mechanisms. Lukenotes. 7(4). St. Luke Institute, MD.
  17. ^ a b Adapted from DSM-IV Adaptive Functioning Scale, APA, 1994.
  18. ^ a b c d Riley, Julia (2012). Communication in Nursing (edisi ke-7). Missouri: Mosby/Elsevier. hlm. 160–173. 
  19. ^ Lefcourt, H. M. (2001). "The Humour Solution". Dalam Snyder, C. R. Coping with Stress: Effective People and Processes. New York: Oxford University Press. hlm. 68–92. ISBN 978-0198029953. 
  20. ^ Valliant, George E. (2000). "Adaptive Mental Mechanisms". American Psychologist. 55 (1): 89–98. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.89. PMID 11392869. 
  21. ^ Folkman, S.; Moskowitz, J. (2000). "Stress, Positive Emotion, and Coping". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 9 (4): 115–118. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00073. 
  22. ^ Schok ML, Kleber RJ, Elands M, Weerts JM (2008). "Meaning as a mission: a review of empirical studies on appraisals of war and peacekeeping experiences". Clinical Psychology Review (Review). 28 (3): 357–65. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.04.005. PMID 17532104. 
  23. ^ "displacement n." A Dictionary of Psychology. Edited by Andrew M. Colman. Oxford University Press 2009. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.
  24. ^ https://www.secretintelligenceservice.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Freudian-defense-mechanisms.pdf
  25. ^ Potter, Patricia (2014). Canadian Fundamentals of Nursing (edisi ke-5). Toronto: Elsevier. hlm. 472–488. 
  26. ^ "stres". Oxford English Dictionary (edisi ke-2). Oxford University Press. 1989. - "1955 H. Basowitz et al. Anxiety & Stress i. 7 Anxiety has been defined in terms of an affective response; stress is the stimulus condition likely to arouse such response."
  27. ^ Douglas, Harper. "stres".Online Etymology Dictionary. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-22. - "stress (n.) [...] The purely psychological sense is attested from 1955."
  28. ^ Linn, Margaret W. (1986). "Elderly Women's Health and Psychological Adjustment: Life Stressors and Social Support". Dalam Hobfoll, Stevan E. Stress, Social Support, And Women. Clinical and Community Psychology (dalam bahasa Inggris). Abingdon: Taylor & Francis (dipublikasikan tanggal 2014). hlm. 233. ISBN 978-1-317-77060-2. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-22. Although the SRRS identified women with high and low stress, it also appeared limited in covering certain areas of stress currently felt by these women. For example, worry and concern about events that have not happened, or in some cases did happen but were not included on the scale, were common. 
  29. ^ Setelah diakui secara luas, "passion" tampaknya berkurang ketika konsep "stres" menjadi populer. Lihat penggunaan Ngram untuk dua istilah.
  30. ^ Sebagai contoh: Carr, Alan (2012). Clinical Psychology: An Introduction (dalam bahasa Inggris). London: Routledge. hlm. 22. ISBN 978-0-415-68397-5. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-21. This stress-induced focus on the self is compounded by exposure to 'pop-psychology' advice to use selffocused stress management techniques during interviews. 
  31. ^ Cohen, Lisa J. (2011-01-01). The Handy Psychology Answer Book (dalam bahasa Inggris). Detroit: Visible Ink Press. hlm. 401. ISBN 978-1-57859-354-5. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-22. Popular or pop psychology is aimed at a popular audience and communicated through the mass media. It addresses topics related to psychology—such as romantic relationships, stress management, child rearing, and sexuality [...] 

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