Aksara Harappa

Harappa
Harappa;
	Prasasti Harappa yang menunjukkan lima simbol atau karakter
Jenis aksara	Belum terurai (Proto-tulisan)
Bahasa	belum diketahui (mungkin bahasa Harappa)
Periode	3500–1900 SM
Arah penulisan	Kanan ke kiri
ISO 15924
ISO 15924	Inds, 610 , Indus (Harappan)

Aksara Harappa (juga dikenal sebagai aksara Lembah Indus) adalah kumpulan aksara simbol yang digunakan oleh Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus. Peradaban Lembah Indus. Kebanyakan prasasti yang mengandung simbol-simbol ini sangat pendek, sehingga sulit untuk menilai apakah simbol-simbol ini merupakan suatu aksara untuk menuliskan suatu bahasa, atau melambangkan arti atau kode.^[4] Meskipun banyak upaya penafsiran,^[5] hingga sekarang, aksara ini belum terurai. Tidak ada prasasti dwibahasa yang membantu menguraikan aksara ini, dan penguraian aksara tidak menunjukkan perubahan yang mencolok dari waktu ke waktu. Namun, beberapa sintaksis dicoba untuk menghubungkannya dengan bahasa lain.^[4]

Sekitar 90% dari prasasti aksara Harappa dan benda-benda bertulis yang ditemukan di situs-situs arkeologi di sepanjang sungai Indus, Pakistan.^[a], sisanya dari situs di tempat lain^[b]^[6]^[7]

Terbitan pertama penguraian prasasti simbol Harappa dimulai pada tahun 1875, dalam sebuah gambar oleh Alexander Cunningham.^[8] Sejak itu, lebih dari 4.000 benda bertulis telah ditemukan, bahkan beberapa ditemukan di Mesopotamia, sebagai hubungan perdagangan dan politik antara Indus–Mesopotamia. Pada dasawarsa 1970an, Iravatham Mahadevan menerbitkan naskah dan konkordansi prasasti Harappa yang mencantumkan 3.700 meterai dan 417 tanda berbeda dalam pola tertentu. Dia juga menemukan bahwa rata-rata prasasti berisi lima simbol dan prasasti terpanjang hanya berisi 26 simbol.^[9]

Beberapa cendekiawan, seperti G.R. Hunter,^[10] S. R. Rao, John Newberry,^[11] dan Krishna Rao^[12] berpendapat bahwa aksara Brahmi dipengaruhi oleh aksara Harappa. F. Raymond Allchin dengan agak hati-hati mendukung kemungkinan bahwa^[13]^[14] aksara Brahmi dipengaruhi, tetapi hanya sedikit.^[15] Pendapat lain adalah simbol kebudayaan megalitikum di India selatan dan tengah (dan Sri Lanka) berhubungan dengan aksara Harappa.^[16]^[17] Ahli bahasa seperti Iravatham Mahadevan, Kamil Zvelebil, dan Asko Parpola berpendapat bahwa bahasa pada aksara tersebut berhubungan dengan bahasa Dravida.^[18]^[19]

Catatan

^ 1540 dari Mohanjodaro, 985 dari Harappa, 66 dari Chanhudaro
^ 165 dari Lothal, 99 dari Kalibangan, 7 dari Banawali, 6 dari Ur di Irak, 5 dari Surkotada, 4 dari Chandigarh

Referensi

Catatan kaki

^ David Whitehouse (May 4, 1999). "'Earliest writing' found". BBC News. Diakses tanggal 2 September 2014.
^ "Evidence for Indus script dated to ca. 3500 BCE". Diakses tanggal 2 September 2014.
^ Edwin Bryant. The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford University. hlm. 178.
^ ^a ^b Locklear, Mallory (January 25, 2017). "Science: Machine learning could finally crack the 4,000-year-old Indus script". The Verge. Manhattan, New York, NY: Vox Media. Diakses tanggal January 25, 2017. After a century of failing to crack an ancient script, linguists turn to machines.
^ (Possehl, 1996)
^ Iravatham Mahadevan, 1977, The Indus Script: Text, Concordance and Tables, pp. 6-7
^ Upinder Singh, 2008, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, p. 169
^ Cunningham, Alexander (1875). "Harappa". Archaeological Survey of India: Report for the Years 1872-3. 5: 105–108.
^ Robinson, Andrew (Oct 22, 2015). "Ancient civilization: Cracking the Indus script". Nature News. 526 (7574): 499–501. Bibcode:2015Natur.526..499R. doi:10.1038/526499a  . PMID 26490603.
^ Hunter, G.R. (1934), The Script of Harappa and Mohenjodaro and Its Connection with Other Scripts, Studies in the history of culture, London:K. Paul, Trench, Trubner
^ "Indus script monographs - Volumes 1-7", p.10-20, 1980, John Newberry
^ "An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology", Amalananda Ghosh, p.362, 1990
^ Goody, Jack (1987), The Interface Between the Written and the Oral, Cambridge University Press, hlm. 301–302 (note 4)
^ Allchin, F.Raymond; Erdosy, George (1995), The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States, Cambridge University Press, hlm. 336
^ Salomon, Richard, On The Origin Of The Early Indian Scripts: A Review Article. Journal of the American Oriental Society 115.2 (1995), 271–279, diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2019-05-22, diakses tanggal 2021-09-12
^ Mahadevan, Iravatham (2004), Megalithic pottery inscription and a Harappa tablet:A case of extraordinary resemblance (PDF), Harappa.com, diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2012-11-01
^ Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2006), "Inscribed pots, emerging identities", dalam Patrick Olivelle, Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE, Oxford University Press, hlm. 121–122
^ Rahman, Tariq. "Peoples and languages in pre-islamic Indus valley". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2008-05-09. Diakses tanggal 2008-11-20. most scholars have taken the 'Dravidian hypothesis' seriously
^ "The Indus Script | Harappa". www.harappa.com. Diakses tanggal May 22, 2020.

Daftar pustaka

Bryant, Edwin (2000), The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture : The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate Oxford University Press.
B. B. Lal (1977). On the Most Frequently Used Sign in the Indus Script.
Everson, Michael (1999-01-29). "Proposal for encoding the Indus script in Plane 1 of the UCS" (PDF). DKUUG. Diakses tanggal 2010-08-31.
Farmer, Steve et al. (2004) The Collapse of the Indus-Script Thesis: The Myth of a Literate Harappan Civilization, Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies (EJVS), vol. 11 (2004), issue 2 (Dec) [1] (PDF).
Knorozov, Yuri V. (ed.) (1965) Predvaritel'noe soobshchenie ob issledovanii protoindiyskikh textov. Moscow.
Mahadevan, Iravatham, Murukan In the Indus Script (1999)
Mahadevan, Iravatham, Aryan or Dravidian or Neither? A Study of Recent Attempts to Decipher the Indus Script (1995–2000) EJVS (ISSN 1084-7561) vol. 8 (2002) issue 1 (March 8).Wayback Machine
Heras, Henry. Studies in Proto-Indo-Mediterranean Culture, Bombay: Indian Historical Research Institute, 1953.
Parpola, Asko et al. (1987-2010). Corpus of Indus seals and inscriptions, Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia (Academia scientiarum Fennica), 1987–2010.
Parpola, Asko (1994), Deciphering the Indus script Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Parpola, Asko (2005) Study of the Indus Script. 50th ICES Tokyo Session.
Parpola, Asko (2008) Is the Indus script indeed not a writing system?. Published in Airāvati, Felicitation volume in honour of Iravatham Mahadevan, Chennai.
Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). Indus Age: The Writing System. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3345-2. .
Walter Ashlin Fairservis (1992). The Harappan Civilization and Its Writing: A Model for the Decipherment of the Indus Script. BRILL. ISBN 978-8120404915.
Rao, R.P.N. et al. (2009). "Entropic Evidence for Linguistic Structure in the Indus Script". Science, 29 May 2009.
Rao, R.P.N. (2010). "Probabilistic Analysis of an Ancient Undeciphered Script". IEEE Computer, vol. 43(4), 76–80, April 2010.
Sproat, R. (2014). "A Statistical Comparison of Written Language and Nonlinguistic Symbol Systems". "Language", vol. 90(2), 457–481, June 2014.
Subramanian, T. S. (2006) "Significance of Mayiladuthurai find" Diarsipkan 2006-06-17 di Wayback Machine. in The Hindu, May 1, 2006.
Wells, B. "An Introduction to Indus Writing" Independence, MO: Early Sites Research Society 1999.
Keim, Brandon (2009) "Artificial Intelligence Cracks 4,000 Year Old Mystery" in WIRED
Vidale, Massimo (2007). "The collapse melts down: a reply to Farmer, Sproat and Witzel". Philosophy East and West. 57 (1–4): 333–366.

Pranala luar

Mahadevan, Iravatham (1977). Indus Script Texts: Concordances and Tables. New Dehli: Archaeological Society of India.
Text based Indus Script Signs with the table of codes
How come we can't decipher the Indus script?
Towards a scientific study of the Indus Script Diarsipkan 2007-02-06 di Wayback Machine.
Studies in Indus Scripts - I and II
Collection of essays about the Indus script
Indus script

[6] 1540 dari Mohanjodaro, 985 dari Harappa, 66 dari Chanhudaro

[7] 165 dari Lothal, 99 dari Kalibangan, 7 dari Banawali, 6 dari Ur di Irak, 5 dari Surkotada, 4 dari Chandigarh

[1] David Whitehouse (May 4, 1999). "'Earliest writing' found". BBC News. Diakses tanggal 2 September 2014.

[2] "Evidence for Indus script dated to ca. 3500 BCE". Diakses tanggal 2 September 2014.

[3] Edwin Bryant. The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford University. hlm. 178.

[Locklear-4] Locklear, Mallory (January 25, 2017). "Science: Machine learning could finally crack the 4,000-year-old Indus script". The Verge. Manhattan, New York, NY: Vox Media. Diakses tanggal January 25, 2017. After a century of failing to crack an ancient script, linguists turn to machines.

[5] (Possehl, 1996)

[8] Iravatham Mahadevan, 1977, The Indus Script: Text, Concordance and Tables, pp. 6-7

[9] Upinder Singh, 2008, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, p. 169

[10] Cunningham, Alexander (1875). "Harappa". Archaeological Survey of India: Report for the Years 1872-3. 5: 105–108.

[11] Robinson, Andrew (Oct 22, 2015). "Ancient civilization: Cracking the Indus script". Nature News. 526 (7574): 499–501. Bibcode:2015Natur.526..499R. doi:10.1038/526499a  . PMID 26490603.

[Hunter_1934-12] Hunter, G.R. (1934), The Script of Harappa and Mohenjodaro and Its Connection with Other Scripts, Studies in the history of culture, London:K. Paul, Trench, Trubner

[13] "Indus script monographs - Volumes 1-7", p.10-20, 1980, John Newberry

[14] "An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology", Amalananda Ghosh, p.362, 1990

[15] Goody, Jack (1987), The Interface Between the Written and the Oral, Cambridge University Press, hlm. 301–302 (note 4)

[16] Allchin, F.Raymond; Erdosy, George (1995), The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States, Cambridge University Press, hlm. 336

[Salomon_1995-17] Salomon, Richard, On The Origin Of The Early Indian Scripts: A Review Article. Journal of the American Oriental Society 115.2 (1995), 271–279, diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2019-05-22, diakses tanggal 2021-09-12

[18] Mahadevan, Iravatham (2004), Megalithic pottery inscription and a Harappa tablet:A case of extraordinary resemblance (PDF), Harappa.com, diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2012-11-01

[19] Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2006), "Inscribed pots, emerging identities", dalam Patrick Olivelle, Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE, Oxford University Press, hlm. 121–122

[20] Rahman, Tariq. "Peoples and languages in pre-islamic Indus valley". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2008-05-09. Diakses tanggal 2008-11-20. most scholars have taken the 'Dravidian hypothesis' seriously

[21] "The Indus Script | Harappa". www.harappa.com. Diakses tanggal May 22, 2020.

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