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Gu

Untuk kegunaan lain, lihat GU.

Rochelimit/Sandbox
Hanzi:	觚
Alih aksara Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin: gū - Wade-Giles: ku1

A gu is type of ancient Chinese ritual bronze vessel from the Shang and Zhou dynasties (i.e. 1600–256 BC). It was used to drink wine or to offer ritual libations.

A gu is tall and slender, with a slightly flared base that tapers to a slim center section before widening again into a trumpet-like mouth, wider than the base. Its surface is often decorated with taotie .

A gu from the Shang dynasty was among the 13 works of art stolen from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum on 18 March 1990, along with paintings by Rembrandt and Vermeer.

A gu from the middle Shang Dynasty, Shanghai Museum, Shanghai, China

The Beginning of the gu vessel

The gu vessel was known for its use as a wine drinking vessel. It is said to have developed from other elaborate cups that also had high stems and were found in Neolithic cultures. Inscriptions have been found on ancient vessels stating that it was common to drink wine in Chinese cultures. The creation of a vessel such as the gu makes sense in modern times because of its shape. The long stem made it easy to hold and sip from, while still allowing it to take on unique and elegant features.

Early inspiration for the creation of the gu vessel

Throughout the hundreds of Neolithic to early dynastic sites discovered in China, ritual vessels ranging from clay to bronze are often found in the tombs of these sites. The form, shapes, and décor, provide hints to the every vessel’s function as well as the early beliefs that inspired them. Early Chinese religion has been difficult for scholars to understand due to a lack of extensive archaeological evidence on Neolithic religious philosophies and ritual practices. The early Shang Dynasty, however, had a much more concrete religion in regards to beliefs and practices ranging from ancestor worship to funerary rituals, and a developed system to perform sacrifices. As these beliefs could have extended back into earlier periods in China, a common center of worship included such elements such as ancestors, fertility concerns as well as other spirits or gods of the natural elements.

A gu from the Shang Dynasty, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington, D.C.

The ritual vessels of early China are an extension of the spiritual or religious world, in which the powers that seemed to exist in nature may have carried a high influence in the inspiration of the vessels. The powers of nature included those that could have resided in animals, plants, water, sickness, death, and eventually the afterlife, all of which coexisted with people as having a high influence on one's life. In some cases, ritual vessels provided a way to maintain harmony between the spirit world and the earthly realm through vessels holding sacrifices, or vessels like the gu being drunk by humans in ritual ceremonies.

Function and use

The gu was a common wine vessel to be found in high class areas. This wine vessel has been found in places such as meeting areas were high class Chinese members would gather for wine with one another. The gu vessel can be unique in a number of ways. The more elegant styled vessels with more relief and design would be found more commonly in the high class surroundings. The simpler, tall and narrow, gu vessels would be found throughout the family's households. According to the Tsun family, the gu vessel was found to be listed under the "Wine Containers" list of artifacts that have been found in the Shang civilizations. This allows archaeologists to focus on locations of gu vessels to help indicate the class status of the site.

Examples of function

In Book 6, verse 25, of the Confucian Analects, a gu is referred to as a cup to be drunk from specifically in religious sites but first by the rulers of the Shang dynasty. Its functional use for a human rather than a spirit is also noted based on the construction of the gu vessel for its design is logical in that it can hold liquid and can be easily held in one’s hand unlike other wine vessels.

The only evidence we have of ritual use of this vessel is its strong association with wine, spirits, and high class rulers. Later engraved vessels help support the significance of ritual wine drinking as part of ritual ceremony. The gu vessel appears in an engraving of a ritual scene found on a yi vessel discovered in a tomb in Shaanxi in which the gu being used in the engraving highly resembles the gu of the Shang.

The name

The term gu had not been ever previously found inscribed on any other vessels and the first mention of this term was not until the 11th century found in early artist and antiquarian, Li Gonglin’s writings. Li, a painter and avid collector of early bronzes, is credited for designating the name of the gu vessel based on an experiment on a gu vessel he owned. In his experiment, he measures that his gu vessel can hold exactly two pints or sheng of liquid which is equal to a gu while the designated character means “ridge” or "flange" based on those decorative elements found on his gu.

Historical developments and examples

Although gu is name of a bronze vessel form, similar vessels have been made of clay and wood long before the Bronze Age.

Bronze gu

Based on archaeological discoveries, gu is one of the most common bronze vessel forms in the Shang Dynasty(around 16th century to 11th century B.C.). Xiaoneng Yang points out that gu became less popular in the Western Zhou Dynasty (around 11th century to 8th century B. C.), but the style of the late Shang period, or rather the Anyang Style, survived and the style of the early Shang period also revived. Moreover, gu disappeared in the reign of King Mu of Zhou in the 10th century B.C.E.

Zhengzhou phase (Erligang period) of the Shang Dynasty

One bronze gu has been discovered at the north corner of the upper level of the Tomb M2 in Erligang, Zhengzhou, an early Shang Dynasty site. Decors on this vessel are concentrated on a band at the lower part of its body, which, according to Max Loehr, is a characteristic of Early Shang bronze.

The gu from Erligang has some cross-shape holes on its foot, which is a common feature among some Shang bronzes. For example, all the gu vessels and some other bronzes from Chenggu, Shaanxi have this kind of cross-shape holes, though their diverse decors and shapes suggest they might have been made in different time periods in the Shang Dynasty.

Anyang phase of the Shang Dynasty

Huge changes had taken place before the capital of Shang moved to Yin, Shang's last capital. Gu also changed in Anyang phase. First, gu at this time was usually higher than 20 centimeters with slim body and a wide mouth. Fu Hao gu from Anyang is 25.5-centimeter-high and its mouth is 14.2-centimeter-wide, which significantly surpasses its bottom. Chü gu, also found from a tomb at Anyang, is about 31-centimeter-high and its mouth is almost twice as wide as its bottom. Second, from this time onward, the base of gu raised up slightly with a short round foot. The gu displayed in the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington D. C. and the Shanghai Museum, Shanghai, whose pictures are shown on this page, possess this feature. Third, some gu also have decors that extend from its waist to the rim of the mouth in three triangle registers. In fact, bronze vessels made in Anyang phase are usually fully decorated with decors.

Early Western Zhou Dynasty

Imitations or revivals of former styles appear in the late Shang period and early Western Zhou period. Jessica Rawson has pointed out a gu that is 28.5-centimeter-high with a taotie motif on its waist celebrates the early Shang styles by locating its decors on one band. Another example is the Lü Fu Yi gu found in the Hoard of the Wei Family. This vessel is 25.2-centimeter-high and its mouth is about 13.2-centimeter-wide. Its neck is long and slim without any decorations. Low ribbon-like relief appears at the lower section of the vessel and it does not have a foot.

Middle Western Zhou Dynasty

In the middle Western Zhou period, gu became short and squat, while gradually disappeared. Wan Qi gu can be dated back to the mid-Western Zhou Dynasty. This gu is about 14.5 centimeter high with a 14.7-centimeter-wide mouth and a 10.1 cm-wide-base. Meanwhile, this gu's waist is only slightly narrower than its month and base. Another gu discovered in a hoard in Zhangjiapo, Shaanxi, is similar in shape, but a little bit smaller.

Ceramic gu

Modern Chinese archaeologists have identified numbers of neolithic pottery wine drinking vessels as gu or "gu-shape vessel". Besides, Ceramic gu continued to exist even after it transformed into a bronze vessel.

The Neolithic Age

Numbers of pottery vessels unearthed from Neolithic sites are named as gu by archaeologists. Some of these pottery gu look very different from the form of bronze gu, while some appear similar and might be the direct ancestors of bronze gu.

A gray pottery beaker discovered at a Dawenkou culture site in Tai'an, Shandong is categorized as a "gu-shape vessel". It is 29.2-centimeter-high and can be roughly divided into 3 sections. The top section is a funnel shape container. Nonetheless, the other two sections distinguish this vessel form a bronze gu. The middle section is a long stem, decorated with engraved grooves and a high rising band. The lower section is its stand with three square legs.

Some pottery drinking vessels excavated in the late [Dawenkou culture|Dawenkou sites] appear more similar to the bronze gu.^:222–223 A pottery gu that looks striking similar to bronze gu has been excavated at Shilipu (十里鋪), Henan.^:214 This gu is 13.6-centimeter-high with four rising bands as decorations. Its body looks almost like a column , but gets wider at the mouth. Similar pottery objects have been found in other areas as well and these objects are suggested to be the predecessors of bronze gu.^:222–223

The Bronze Age

A pottery gu discovered in 1960 at the Erlitou sites

Pottery gu discovered from Erlitou and Erligang suggest they might have direct relation with the bronze gu.^{:208–209 & 215–216} As mentioned above, pottery gu coexisted with bronze gu in the Bronze Age, but their shapes are not entirely identical.

Erlitou culture has been considered as a part of the Bronze Age, although scholars still have disputes in identifying it as the capital of the Xia Dynasty, China's first dynasty recorded by historical texts, or an early Shang sites. A pottery gu discovered in Erlitou is a funnel-shape cup, which becomes narrow at the bottom. Meanwhile, it has a raised-up foot that gets wider at the bottom, which make its outlook similar to bronze gu.

Pottery gu are found in Anyang and some other Shang sites in the heyday of the Bronze Age. A pottery gu from a tomb that can be dated to the reign of Zugeng (祖庚) or Zu Jia (祖甲) in Anyang. The shape of this gu is very similar to bronze gu at the same period, though its waist is thicker. It have some long scratched slashes covered its surface as decor.

Later time period

Gu continues to exist after the Bronze Age, but it was used as vase instead of a wine drinking vessel. A gu with tubular handles, glazed in light greyish-blue in the National Palace Museum, for example, imitates the shape of bronze gu, but it functions as a vase.

Lacquered gu

Bianjiashan （卞家山） in Zhejiang has yielded numbers of lacquered vessels and gu is a major vessel type.^{:43, 45} These gu have slim waist and wide-opened mouth and they are coated with black and red lacquer with some rising bands as decorations. Archaeologists date Bianjiashan back to the late Liangzhu Culture period and suggest these gu may have certain connections with bronze gu in the Shang Dynasty.^{:41 & 43}

Bibliography

Books

• Beijing Tushuguan 北京圖書館, ed. Beijing Tushuguan Cang Qingtong Qi Quanxing Tapian Ji 北京圖書館藏青銅器全形拓片集. Beijing: Beijing Tushuguan Chubanshe, 1997. ISBN 7501312850
• Chang, Kwang-Chih. Shang Civilization. New Heaven and London: Yale University Press, 1980.
• Fong, Wen, ed. The Great Bronze Age of China: An Exhibition from the People’s Republic of China. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1980.
• Guo li gu gong bo wu yuan 國立故宮博物院. Catalogue of the Special Exhibition of Shang and Chou Dynasty Bronze Wine Vessels 商周青銅酒器特展圖錄. Taibei: Zhonghua min guo Taibei Shi Shilin qu Weishuangxi & Guo li gu gong bo wu yuan, 1989.
• Guoli Gugong Bowuyuan. Guan Ware of the Southern Song Dynasty. Hong Kong: Cafa, 1962.
• Loewe, Michael and Edward L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
• Lv呂, Qichang琪昌. Qingtong Jue & Jia de Mimi: Cong Shiqian Taigui dao Xiashang Wenhua Qiyuan bing Duandai Wenti Yanjiu 青銅爵、斝的秘密：從史前陶鬶到夏商文化起源並斷代問題研究. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press, 2007. ISBN 9787308056113
• Rawson, Jessica. Western Zhou Ritual Bronzes from the Arthur M. Sackler Collections. Washington, D.C.: Sackler Foundation/Cambridge: Sackler Museum, 1990.
• Rawson, Jessica. Chinese Bronzes: Art and Rituals. London : British Museum Publications, 1987.
• Thorp, Robert L. Spirit and Ritual: The Morse Collection of Ancient Chinese Art. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1982.
• Wu, Hung. Monumentality in Early Chinese Art and Architecture. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995.
• Yang, Xiaoneng, ed. The Golden Age of Chinese Archaeology: Celebrated Discoveries from the People's Republic of China. Washington, D. C.: National Gallery of Art, 1999.
• Zhongguo Qingtong Qi Quanji Bianji Weiyuanhui 中國青銅器全集編輯委員會, ed. Zhouguo Qingtong Qi Quanji 中國青銅器全集, Vol. 2. Beijing : Wen wu chu ban she， 1997.
• Rawson, J. and Bunker, E. Ancient Chinese and Ordos Bronzes 1990
• New Haven and London Yale University Press Shang Civilization 1980

Articles

• Wang王, Shouzhi 壽芝. "Shanxi Chenggu Chutu de Shangdai Qingtong Qi 陝西城固出土的商代青銅器", Wenbo文博 6 (1988): 3–9.
• Bagley, Robert. "Shang Archaeology." In The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C., edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy, 124–291. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
• Zhao趙, Ye 曄. "Tanmi Bianjiashan 探秘卞家山." Dongfang Bowu 東方博物, 24 (2006): 38–45.
• Smith, Howard. "Chinese Religion in the Shang Dynasty". Numen. Vol. 8. Brill, 1961. 142–150.
• Alt, Wayne. "Ritual and the Social Construction of Sacred Artifacts: An Analysis of 'Analects' 6.25". Philosophy East and West, Vol. 55, No. 3. University of Hawaii Press, 2005. 461–469.
• Fong, Mary H. The Origin of Chinese Representation of the Human Figure. Artibus Asiae. Vol. 49, No. ½ (1988-1989), 5-38.
• Harrist, Robert E. The Artist as Antiquarian: Li Gonglin and His Study of Early Chinese Art. Artibus Asiae. Vol. 55, No. ¾ (1995), 237–280.

Further reading

• Allan,Sarah. The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991.
• Bagley, Rober W. “Meaning and Explanation.” Archives of Asian Art 46 (1993): 6–26.
• Loewe, Michael and Edward L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

External links

• Encyclopædia Britannica entry
• Exemplar from Christie's
• Shandong Museum. "Gray Pottery Gu-beaker."
• State Administration of Cultural Heritage. "Tao Gu 陶觚"
• The great bronze age of China: an exhibition from the People's Republic of China, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on gus

Ogata Kenzan

Ogata Kenzan (尾形 乾山code: ja is deprecated , 1663–1743), originally Ogata Shinsei (尾形 深省code: ja is deprecated ), and also known by the pseudonym Shisui, was a Japanese potter and painter.

Biography

Ogata Kenzan was born in Kyoto into a rich merchant family. His older brother was the painter Ogata Kōrin (1658–1716). Kenzan studied with the potter Nonomura Ninsei and made his own kiln. In 1712 a nobleman began patronizing his kiln, he moved to the east area of Kyoto. He was one of the greatest ceramicists of the Tokugawa era. In 1713, he moved to Edo where he also spent the rest of his life.

Ogata Kenzan produced a distinctive style of freely brushed grasses, blossoms, and birds as decorative motifs for pottery. His pieces were noted for their perfect relation between design and shape. He often collaborated on the decoration of pottery with his older brother, Ogata Kōrin, after whom the style known as Rinpa was named.

Bernard Leach, the British studio potter, wrote a book about Ogata Kenzan in 1966 entitled Kenzan and his Tradition, published by Faber & Faber in London.

Gallery

Selected works by Ogata Kenzan

• 
  Five small glazed pottery bowls
• 
  Hanging scroll; ink, color, and gold on paper painting of evening glories
• 
  Netsuke depicting chrysanthemums

External links

Media tentang Rochelimit/Sandbox di Wikimedia Commons

• Bridge of dreams: the Mary Griggs Burke collection of Japanese art, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Ogata Kenzan (see index)
• Pottery works by Ogata Kenzan
• Bowl with bamboo leaf design at Kimball Art Museum

Kamisaka Sekka

Kamisaka Sekka (神坂 雪佳code: ja is deprecated , 1866–1942) was an important artistic figure in early twentieth-century Japan. Born in Kyoto to a Samurai family, his talents for art and design were recognized early. He eventually allied himself with the traditional Rinpa school of art. He is considered the last great proponent of this artistic tradition. Sekka also worked in lacquer and in a variety of other media.

From the series A World of Things, 1909–1910

As traditional Japanese styles became unfashionable (such as Rimpa style), Japan implemented policies to promote the country's unique artistic style by upgrading the status of traditional artists who infused their craft with a dose of modernism. In 1901, Sekka was sent by the Japanese government to Glasgow where he was heavily influenced by Art Nouveau. He sought to learn more about the Western attraction to Japonism, and which elements or facets of Japanese art would be more attractive to the West. Returning to Japan, he taught at the newly opened Kyoto Municipal School of Arts and Crafts, experimented with Western tastes, styles, and methods, and incorporated them into his otherwise traditional Japanese-style works. While he sticks to traditional Japanese subject matter, and some elements of Rimpa painting, the overall effect is very Western and modern. He uses bright colors in large swaths, his images seeming on the verge of being patterns rather than proper pictures of a subject; the colors and patterns seem almost to "pop", giving the paintings an almost three-dimensional quality.

Momoyagusa

A woodblock print from Kamisaka Sekka's series Momoyagusa

Momoyagusa (A World of Things) is considered Sekka's woodblock-print masterpiece. The three-volume set was commissioned between 1909 and 1910 by the publishing firm Unsōdō of Kyoto. The Japanese name of the series can first be found in the eighth-century poetic text Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves (Man'yōshū), which refers to a multi-leaved autumnal herb (momoyogusa), possibly a chrysanthemum or wormwood. The sixty image work displays a variety of landscapes, figures, classical themes, and innovative subjects, captured in a small space. They show Sekka's complete mastery of traditional Rimpa style, as well as combining his own approach and understanding of the innovations influencing Japan at the time.

See also

The pamphlet of the exhibition of Kamisaka(2007.9.22)(pdf)

External links

• Sekka's Harunotamo (Fields in Spring) at the Birmingham Museum of Art
• Sekka's Hotei (One of the Seven Gods of Good Fortune) at the Birmingham Museum of Art
• 'Birds, flowers and figures on scattered fans' [2] Collection of the Art Gallery of New South Wales.

Seni lukis Nepal

Mandala of Chandra, God of the Moon, A late 14th–early 15th-century painting

Nepalese Painting marks the beginning with the religious paintings of Hindu and Buddhist culture. Those traditional paintings can be found in the form of either wall paintings, cloth paintings or manuscripts. They used conservative technique, style, and iconography in their works for centuries.

Nepalese paintings believed to have embraced western influences after 1850 with a work of Bhajuman [Chitrakar], a traditional artist who became acquainted with western Realism after visiting Europe. Bhajuman, also known as Bhajumacha Chitrakar, was a court painter of Jung Bahadur Rana, who visited Europe in 1850 after becoming Prime Minister of Nepal. As a member of the new Prime Minister's entourage, Bhajuman also visited Paris and London. Soon after the return, western Realism supposedly influenced Bhajuman's paintings, marking the start of modern trend. An unsigned painting - supposedly to have painted by Bhajuman - depicts a Thapa General in a full military regalia. This painting remained a pivotal example of considerable departure from an established traditional school of Nepali painting to western school of art practice. However, the recent discovery of the illustrations by Raj Man Singh Chitrakar (1797-1865) for his patron a British Resident Brian Houghton Hodgson, sheds light on the western Realism entering Nepal way before the influences brought in by Bhajuman Chitrakar.

7th to 19th century paintings of Nepal

Kesh Chandra (A mythical character in the folklore in Kathmandu) and his sister; A picture dated 1223 AD

Mithila Painting is practiced in the Mithila region of Nepal and India. This tradition dates back to the 7th century AD. Mithila painting is done with twigs, fingers, natural dyes and pigments. Artists make pictures of natural objects like sun, moon, and deities from mythological epics, royal courts, and weddings. Researchers have discovered much Buddhist art in caves of Mustang area which dates back to 12 century or earlier. Style, technique, materials and subject of painting differed with the ethnic origin of the artists. Artists from the Newar community made most of the paintings that illuminated Buddhist manuscripts and book covers as well as devotional paintings on cloth. Newari artists were renowned throughout Asia for the high quality of their workmanship. Newari painting style 'Beri' was famous in Tibet. Beri was adopted as Tibet’s universal painting style in the 14th century.

Nepalese Painting 1900-1950

The remarkable entry of the western school of art practice is noticed in Nepali painting only after the return of two young artists Tej Bahadur Chitrakar 1898-1971 and Chandra Man Singh Maskey in late 1920s. They both joined Government School of Art in Calcutta to learn to paint by observing life and nature-concept of tonal effects, colors and the most important - the application and the use of modern paint mediums like oil, water, charcoal, pastel etc. Very few works of Chandra Man Singh Maskey are accessible to the public. However with the publication of the book Tej Bahadur Chitrakar - icon of transition written by his heir Madan Chitrakar in 2004 and a grand post-humous retrospective of Tej Bahadur Chitrakar "Images of a Lifetime--: A Historical Perspective" organised by Siddhartha Art Gallery in 2005 have emphasised on his contribution for the development of Nepali painting. Tej Bahadur Chitrakar played an important role practising in both traditional Nepali art as well as western ways of painting. Simultaneously he is also fondly remembered as a dedicated teacher who shared his knowledge to many aspiring artists of his time. Under the tutelage of Tej Bahadur, Dil Bahadur Chitrakar versed himself in various paint mediums especially pastel techniques whilst Amar Chitrakar became an expert in water color and oil and became one of the beloved Nepali artists.

Nepalese Painting 1950-1990

The arrival of Lain Singh Bangdel (1919–2002) in 1961 marks as an introduction to Modern Art in Nepal. He brought with him, the exposure to Modern art movements from Paris to a country which was slowly opening to the world only after 1950s. With the patronage of King Mahendra, Lain Singh Bangdel introduced abstract art to the Nepali audience. In 1972 he was appointed as an academician of Royal Nepal Academy by King Birendra.

Juddha Kala Pathshala was the only institute where art was taught formally during those days. Many of the young enthusiasts opted India to study art under various scholarship programs. After the return of young artists such as Uttam Nepali, Manuj Babu Mishra, Shashi Bikram Shah, Batsa Gopal Baidhya, Krishna Manandhar, Rama Nanda Joshi, Thakur Prasad Mainali, Deepak Shimkhada, Sushma Shimkhada, Pramila Giri, Indra Pradhan, Karna Narsingh Rana, Shashi Kala Tiwari, Nepali art flourished into a collective modern phase. Artists like Kiran Manandhar, Karna Maskey, Ragini Upadhyay, Uma Shankar Shah, Pramesh Adhikari, Yuwak Tuladhar, K.K. Karmacharya, Birendra Pratap Singh, Surendra Bhattarai, Sharad Ranjit succeeded as a young and vibrant generation during 1980s. K.K.Karmacharya had more worked to stretch out as new technique, collage and assemblage cf popular in Europe, in Nepal. Durga Baral practising in isolation in his home town Pokhara came as a surprise with his first solo exhibition in 1983 "Chowk ra Tamsuk". Though a self practised artist, his mastery in skill and execution surpassed many of his contemporaries. Karna Maskey passed away on September 14, 2016