Pengguna:Dare2Leap/Bak pasir 4

Several terms (e.g., ENTP, INTP, INTJ and ISFJ) redirect here. These are Myers–Briggs personality types but are also used in Socionics and the Keirsey Temperament Sorter.

A chart with descriptions of each Myers–Briggs personality type and the four dichotomies central to the theory

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) adalah psikotes yang dirancang untuk mengukur preferensi dasar murni psikologis seseorang dalam melihat dunia dan membuat keputusan. Psikotes ini berisi pertanyaan tentang bagaimana perasaan atau tindakan yang biasanya dirasakan atau dilakukan dalam situasi tertentu. Tes ini memberikan nilai biner 4 kategori: introversi atau ekstraversi (introversion/extraversion), penginderaan atau intuisi (sensing/intuition), pemikiran atau perasaan (thinking/feeling), dan menghakimi atau mengamati (judging/perceiving). Satu huruf dari setiap kategori digabungkan untuk memberikan hasil tes 4-huruf yang mewakili satu dari 16 jenis, seperti "INFP" atau "ESTJ".

MBTI dikembangkan oleh Katharine Cook Briggs dan Isabel Briggs Myers pada 1940, yang terinspirasi oleh buku Jenis Psikologis oleh psikolog Swiss Carl Jung. Isabel Myers tertarik pada konsep introversi dan ia menganggap dirinya sebagai "INFP". Namun, mereka merasa bahwa bukunya terlalu kompleks untuk masyarakat umum, dan oleh karena itu ia mencoba menata fungsi kognitif Jung untuk membuatnya lebih bisa diakses.

Tes ini bergantung pada efek Barnum, sanjungan, dan bias konfirmasi, yang memicu peserta untuk mengidentifikasi diri dengan deskripsi yang agak diinginkan, tidak jelas, dan dapat diterapkan secara luas. Sebagai indikator psikometrik, ada konflik mengenai validitas dan keandalan tesnya, sementara tesnya ternyata mengukur kategori yang seharusnya dikotom yang tidak independen dan tidak komprehensif. Sebagian besar studi yang mendukung validitas MBTI diproduksi oleh Center for Applications of Psychological Type, sebuah organisasi yang dijalankan oleh Yayasan Myers–Briggs, dan dipublikasikan dalam jurnal miliknya, Journal of Psychological Type (JPT), yang mengangkat pertanyaan independensi, bias, dan konflik kepentingan. Hal ini menyebabkan sebagian peneliti mencapnya sebagai ilmu semu.

Walaupun ada kontroversi mengenai validitasnya, MBTI merupakan instrumen yang paling banyak digunakan dan memiliki pengaruh luas sejak diadopsi oleh Educational Testing Service di Amerika Serikat pada 1962. Telah diperkirakan bahwa 50 juta orang telah melewati tes MBTI dan 10.000 bisnis, 2.500 kampus dan universitas, dan 200 badan pemerintah di Amerika Serikat menggunakan MBTI.

Sejarah

Katharine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers extrapolated their MBTI theory from Carl Jung's writings in his 1921 book Psychological Types

MBTI dikembangkan oleh Katherine Cook Briggs dan puterinya, Isabel Briggs Myers sejak Perang Dunia II (1939-1945). Mereka percaya bahwa pengetahuan akan kepribadian dapat membantu perempuan yang akan memasuki dunia kerja di bidang industri. Setelah mengalami pengembangan, akhirnya Tes MBTI ini pertama kali dipublikasikan pada tahun 1962.

MBTI didasarkan dari teori tipologi yang diusulkan oleh Carl Gustav Jung dalam bukunya berjudul "Psychological Type" yang diterbitkan pada tahun 1921. Dalam bukunya, Jung berteori bahwa ada empat fungsi psikologis utama yang digunakan manusia dalam menjalani kehidupan, yaitu: sensasi (sensation), intuisi (intuition), perasaan (feeling), dan pemikiran (thinking).

Briggs memulai penelitian dia mengenai kepribadian pada 1917. Setelah bertemu dengan calon menantu dia, ia mengamati perbedaan menonjol antara kepribadian calon menantunya dan anggota keluarga lain. Briggs memulai proyek yang melibatkan membaca biografi dan kemudian mengembangkan tipologi dimana ia mengusulkan 4 perangai: meditatif (atau penuh pertimbangan), spontan, eksekutif, dan sosial.

Setelah penerbitan terjemahan Inggris buku Carl Jung Jenis Psikologi (pertama diterbitkan dalam bahasa Jerman sebagai Psychologische Typen pada 1921), Briggs mengakui bahwa teori Jung menyerupai, tetapi jauh melampaui, teori dia. 4 jenis Briggs nantinya diidentifikasi sebagai jenis yang sesuai dengan IXXX (Introvert: "meditatif"), EXXP (Ekstrovert & Pencari: "spontan"), EXTJ (Ekstrovert, Pemikir & Penghakim: "eksekutif"), dan EXFJ (Ekstrovert, Perasa & Penghakim: "sosial"). Penerbitan pertama dia adalah dua artikel yang menggambarkan teori Jung, di The New Republic, "Meet Yourself Using the Personality Paint Box" (1926) dan "Up From Barbarism" (1926). Setelah meneliti karya Jung secara menyeluruh, Briggs dan anak perempuan dia memperluas ketertarikan mereka terhadap perilaku manusia menjadi upaya untuk membuat teori jenis psikologis dapat digunakan dalam dunia nyata.

Walaupun Myers lulus dari Swarthmore College di bidang ilmu politik pada 1919, Myers dan Briggs tidak mendapatkan pendidikan formal keahlian psikologi, dan keduanya belajar bidang uji psikometri secara otodidak. Karena itu, Myers magang pada Edward N. Hay (1891–1958), kepala personalia sebuah bank besar di Philadelphia. Dari Hay, Myers mempelajari metode tes konstruksi, penilaian, validasi, dan statistik secara dasar.

Briggs dan Myers mulai membuat indikator mereka selama Perang Dunia II (1939–1945) dengan keyakinan bahwa pengetahuan preferensi kepribadian akan membantu wanita yang memasuki tenaga kerja industri untuk pertama kalinya untuk mengidentifikasi pekerjaan masa perang yang "paling nyaman dan efektif" untuk mereka. Buku Briggs Myers Type Indicator Handbook, yang diterbitkan pada 1944, diterbitkan kembali sebagai "Myers–Briggs Type Indicator" pada 1956.

Karya Myers menarik perhatian Henry Chauncey, kepala Educational Testing Service, sebuah organisasi asesmen pribadi. Di bawah naungan tersebut, "manual" MBTI pertama diterbitkan, pada 1962. MBTI menerima dukungan lebih lanjut dari Donald W. MacKinnon, kepala Institute of Personality and Social Research di Universitas California, Berkeley; W. Harold Grant, seorang professor dari Universitas Negeri Michigan dan Universitas Auburn; dan Mary H. McCaulley dari Universitas Florida. Penerbitan MBTI dialihkan ke Consulting Psychologists Press pada 1975, dan Center for Applications of Psychological Type didirikan sebagai laboratorium penelitian.

Setelah kematian Myers pada Mei 1980, Mary McCaulley memperbarui manual MBTI, dan edisi kedua diterbitkan pada 1985. Edisi ketiga muncul pada 1998.

Briggs began her research into personality in 1917. Upon meeting her future son-in-law, she observed marked differences between his personality and that of other family members. Briggs embarked on a project of reading biographies and subsequently developed a typology wherein she proposed four temperaments: meditative (or thoughtful), spontaneous, executive, and social.

Format and administrasi

Pada 1987, sistem penilaian lanjutan dikembangkan untuk MBTI. Dari sini dikembangkan Type Differentiation Indicator (TDI), yaitu sistem penilaian untuk MBTI yang lebih panjang, Form J, yang mencakup 290 item yang ditulis oleh Myers yang telah melewati analisis item sebelumnya oleh dia. TDI memberikan 20 subskala (5 di bawah masing-masing dari 4 skala preferensi dikotomis), plus 7 subskala tambahan untuk faktor "kenyamanan-ketidaknyamanan" baru (yang mengikuti, walaupun tidak mengukur secara sempurna, faktor NEO-PI neurotisisme). Skala faktor ini menandakan rasa kenyamanan dan keyakinan versus ketidaknyamanan dan kecemasan. Mereka juga memuat salah satu dari 4 jenis dimensi:

• berjaga-optimis (T/F),
• menantang-patuh (T/F),
• riang-khawatir (T/F),
• tegas-ambivalen (J/P),
• berani-terhambat (E/I),
• pemimpin-pengikut (E/I), dan
• proaktif-distraktif (J/P).

Juga disertakan komposit dari hal tersebut yang dinamakan "strain". Ada juga skala untuk konsistensi jenis-skala dan konsistensi skala kenyamanan. Keandalan 23 dari 27 subskala TDI lebih dari 0.50, "hasil yang dapat diterima mengingat singkatnya subskala".

Pada 1989, sistem penilaian dikembangkan untuk 20 subskala dari 4 dikotomi asli. Ini awalnya dikenal sebagai "Form K" atau "Expanded Analysis Report". Alat ini sekarang disebut MBTI Step II.

Form J atau TDI mencakup item (diperoleh dari karya Myers dan McCaulley sebelumnya) yang diperlukan untuk menilai yang akan dikenal sebagai Step III. (MBTI Manual 1998 melaporkan bahwa kedua instrumen tersebut adalah satu dan sama) Step III dikembangkan dalam proyek bersama yang melibatkan organisasi berikut: Myers–Briggs Company, penerbit semua karya MBTI; Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT), yang menyimpan semua karya asli Myers dan McCaulley; dan MBTI Trust yang diketuai oleh Katharine dan Peter Myers. CAPT mengiklankan Step III sebagai langkah untuk pengembangan jenis dan penggunaan "persepsi dan penilaian" oleh para responden.

Konsep

MBTI didasarkan pada teori influensial jenis psikologis yang diajukan oleh psikiater Swiss Carl Jung pada 1921, yang sebagian berdasar pada 4 elemen kosmologi klasik. Jung berspekulasi bahwa orang mengalami dunia menggunakan 4 fungsi psikologis utama—sensasi (sensation), intuisi (intuition), perasaan (feeling), dan pemikiran (thinking)—dan bahwa salah satu dari 4 fungsi ini dominan pada seseorang, sebagian besar waktu. Dalam teori MBTI, keempat kategorinya adalah introversi/ekstraversi, penginderaan/intuisi (sensing/intuition), pemikiran/perasaan (thinking/feeling), dan penghakim/pengamat (judging/perceiving). Menurut MBTI, setiap orang dikatakan memiliki satu kualitas yang disukai dari setiap kategori, yang menghasilkan 16 jenis unik.

MBTI menitikberatkan nilai perbedaan alami. "Asumsi mendasar dari MBTI adalah kita semua memiliki preferensi tertentu dalam cara kita menafsirkan pengalaman kita, dan preferensi tersebut menopang minat, kebutuhan, nilai, dan motivasi kita".

MBTI Manual menyatakan bahwa indikator ini "didesain untuk menerapkan sebuah teori; oleh karena itu, teorinya harus dipahami dulu untuk memahami MBTI". Hal mendasar untuk MBTI adalah hipotesis jenis psikologis seperti yang sebelumnya dikembangkan oleh Carl Jung. Jung mengusulkan adanya dua pasangan dikotomis dari fungsi kognitif:

• Fungsi "rasional" (menghakim): memikir dan merasa.
• Fungsi "irasional" (mengamati): sensasi dan intuisi.

Jung meyakini bahwa untuk setiap orang, setiap fungsi lebih sering diekspresikan dalam bentuk introvert atau ekstrovert. Berdasarkan konsep asli Jung, Briggs dan Myers mengembangkan teori jenis psikologis mereka sendiri, yang dijelaskan di bawah, yang merupakan dasar MBTI. Menurut tulisan psikolog Hans Eysenck pada 1995, 16 jenis kepribadian yang digunakan dalam MBTI tidak lengkap, karena teori Jung menggunakan 32 jenis, 16 dari itu tidak dapat diukur melalui daftar pertanyaan. Menurut Eysenck, tidak semestinya Jung mengklaim bahwa skalanya mengukur konsep Jung secara akurat. Baik model original Jung dan MBTI disederhanakan tetap hipotetis, tanpa adanya penelitian ilmiah terkontrol yang mendukung keduanya.

The MBTI is based on the influential theory of psychological types proposed by Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung in 1921, which was partially based on the four elements of classical cosmology. Jung speculated that people experience the world using four principal psychological functions—sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking—and that one of these four functions is dominant in an individual, a majority of the time. In MBTI theory, the four categories are introversion/extraversion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling, and judging/perceiving. According to the MBTI, each person is said to have one preferred quality from each category, producing 16 unique types.

The MBTI emphasizes the value of naturally occurring differences. "The underlying assumption of the MBTI is that we all have specific preferences in the way we construe our experiences, and these preferences underpin our interests, needs, values, and motivation."

The MBTI Manual states that the indicator "is designed to implement a theory; therefore, the theory must be understood to understand the MBTI". Fundamental to the MBTI is the hypothesis of psychological types as originally developed by Carl Jung. Jung proposed the existence of two dichotomous pairs of cognitive functions:

• The "rational" (judging) functions: thinking and feeling.
• The "irrational" (perceiving) functions: sensation and intuition.

Jung believed that for every person, each of the functions is expressed primarily in either an introverted or extraverted form. Based on Jung's original concepts, Briggs and Myers developed their own theory of psychological type, described below, on which the MBTI is based. According to psychologist Hans Eysenck writing in 1995 the 16 personality types used in MBTI are incomplete, as Jung's theory used 32 types, 16 of which could not be measured by questionnaire. Per Eysenck, it was unfair to Jung to claim the scale accurately measured Jungian concepts. Both Jung's original model and the simplified MBTI remain hypothetical, with no controlled scientific studies supporting either.

Perbedaan dengan Jung

Jung tidak melihat preferensi jenis (seperti introversi dan ekstraversi) sebagai sesuatu yang dualistik, namun sebagai kecenderungan: keduanya merupakan bawaan manusia dan memiliki potensi untuk menyeimbangkan.

Teori tipologi Jung mendalilkan urutan 4 fungsi kognitif (pemikiran, perasaan, sensasi, dan intuisi), masing-masing memiliki satu dari dua kecenderungan (ekstraversi atau introversi), sehingga ada total 8 fungsi dominan. MBTI didasarkan pada 8 fungsi hipotesis tersebut, walaupun dengan beberapa perbedaan ekspresi dari model Jung. Sementara model Jung mengukur 3 dikotomi pertama, Myers dan Briggs menambahkan preferensi penghakim-persepsi.

Penambahan ide Myers dan Briggs pada pemikiran asli Jung yang paling terkenal adalah konsep mereka bahwa huruf ke-4 dari sesuatu jenis (J atau P) menandakan fungsi ekstrover yang paling disukai, yang merupakan fungsi dominan untuk jenis ekstrover dan fungsi pendukung untuk jenis introver.

Jung berhipotesis bahwa fungsi dominan beraksi sendiri dalam dunia yang diinginkan; di luar untuk orang ekstrovert dan di dalam untuk orang introvert. Ketiga fungsi yang tersisa tersebut, dia mengusulkan, beroperasi dengan orientasi berlawanan. Namun, sebagian praktisi MBTI meragukan konsep ini sebagai kesalahan kategori dengan hampir tidak ada bukti empiris yang mendukungnya relatif dengan penemuan lain dengan bukti korelasi, tetapi sebagai sebuah teori, masih tetap menjadi bagian dari ekstrapolasi Myers dan Briggs dari teori mereka walaupun diabaikan.

Hipotesis Jung dapat diringkas sebagai: jika fungsi kognitif dominan introver, maka fungsi lain ekstrover dan sebaliknya. MBTI Manual merangkum karya Jung pada keseimbangan jenis psikologis seperti berikut: "Ada beberapa referensi dalam tulisan Jung ke 3 fungsi tersisa memiliki karakter sikap yang berlawanan. Contohnya, dalam tulisan tentang introvert yang dominan berpikir ... Jung berkomentar bahwa fungsi penyeimbang tersebut memiliki karakter ekstrover". Menggunakan jenis INTP sebagai contoh, orientasinya menurut Jung seperti berikut:

• Pemikiran introver dominan
• Intuisi ekstrover pendukung
• Penginderaan introver tersier
• Perasaan ekstrover inferior

Jung did not see the type preferences (such as introversion and extraversion) as dualistic, but rather as tendencies: both are innate and have the potential to balance.

Jung's typology theories postulated a sequence of four cognitive functions (thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition), each having one of two polar tendencies (extraversion or introversion), giving a total of eight dominant functions. The MBTI is based on these eight hypothetical functions, although with some differences in expression from Jung's model. While the Jungian model proposes the first three dichotomies, Myers and Briggs added the judgment-perception preference.

The most notable addition of Myers' and Briggs' ideas to Jung's original thought is their concept that a given type's fourth letter (J or P) indicates a person's most preferred extraverted function, which is the dominant function for extraverted types and the auxiliary function for introverted types.

Jung hypothesized that the dominant function acts alone in its preferred world: exterior for extraverts and interior for introverts. The remaining three functions, he suggested, operate in the opposite orientation. Some MBTI practitioners, however, place doubt on this concept as being a category error with next to no empirical evidence backing it relative to other findings with correlation evidence, yet as a theory it still remains part of Myers' and Briggs' extrapolation of their original theory despite being discounted.

Jung's hypothesis can be summarized as: if the dominant cognitive function is introverted, then the other functions are extraverted and vice versa. The MBTI Manual summarizes Jung's work of balance in psychological type as follows: "There are several references in Jung's writing to the three remaining functions having an opposite attitudinal character. For example, in writing about introverts with thinking dominant ... Jung commented that the counterbalancing functions have an extraverted character." Using the INTP type as an example, the orientation according to Jung would be as follows:

• Dominant introverted thinking
• Auxiliary extraverted intuition
• Tertiary introverted sensing
• Inferior extraverted feeling

Dinamika dan pengembangan jenis

Sebuah diagram yang menggambarkan fungsi kognitif dari setiap jenis. Warna latar belakang suatu jenis menunjukkan fungsi dominannya dan warna teksnya menunjukkan fungsi pendukungnya.

Model tipologis Jung menganggap jenis psikologis mirip dengan dominansi tangan kiri atau kanan: orang lahir dengan, atau mengembangkan, cara-cara tertentu yang lebih disukai untuk mengamati dan mengambil keputusan. MBTI menyortir sebagian perbedaan psikologis menjadi 4 pasangan berlawanan, atau "dikotomi", dengan hasil 16 jenis psikologis yang bisa didapatkan. Tidak ada jenis yang dianggap lebih "baik" atau "buruk"; namun, Briggs dan Myers berteori bahwa orang-orang secara naluri "lebih menyukai" satu kombinasi jenis. Dengan cara yang sama seperti menulis dengan tangan kiri sulit untuk seseorang yang tidak kidal, jadi orang cenderung menemukan bahwa menggunakan preferensi psikologis yang berlawanan lebih sulit, walaupun mereka dapat menjadi lebih mapan (dan karena itu berperilaku fleksibel) dengan latihan dan pengembangan.

Jenis-jenis MBTI biasanya disebut dengan singkatan 4 huruf – yang merupakan huruf awal masing-masing 4 preferensi jenis dalam bahasa Inggris (kecuali intuisi, yang menggunakan singkatan "N" untuk membedakannya dari introversi). Misalnya:

• ENTJ: extraversion (E), intuition (N), thinking (T), judgment (J)
• ISFP: introversion (I), sensing (S), feeling (F), perception (P)

Singkatan tersebut berlaku pada semua 16 jenis.

Interaksi dua, tiga, atau empat preferensi dikenal sebagai "dinamika jenis". Walaupun dinamika jenis mendapat sedikit atau nol dukungan empiris untuk mendukung kelayakannya sebagai teori ilmiah, Myers dan Briggs menegaskan bahwa untuk masing-masing 16 jenis, satu fungsi menjadi paling dominan dan mungkin akan terlihat paling awal dalam kehidupan. Fungsi sekunder atau pendukung biasanya menjadi lebih jelas (berdiferensiasi) selama masa remaja dan memberikan keseimbangan pada fungsi dominan. Dalam perkembangan biasa, orang cenderung menjadi lebih lancar dengan fungsi ketiga, tersier selama tengah kehidupan, sementara fungsi keempat, inferior tetap menjadi fungsi yang paling sedikit dikembangkan secara sadar. Fungsi inferior sering dianggap lebih terkait dengan yang tidak sadar, dan paling tampak dalam situasi seperti stres tinggi (kadang-kadang dirujuk sebagai berada "dalam genggaman" fungsi inferior).

Namun, penggunaan dinamika jenis sedang diperdebatkan: dalam kesimpulan berbagai studi dinamika jenis, James H. Reynierse menulis, "Dinamika jenis memiliki masalah logika yang terus-menerus dan pada dasarnya didasarkan pada serangkaian kesalahan kategori; itu memberikan, sebaik-baiknya, penjelasan yang terbatas dan tidak lengkap mengenai fenomena terkait jenis"; dan "dinamika jenis bergantung pada bukti anekdotal, gagal dalam sebagian besar tes efektivitas, dan tidak sesuai dengan fakta empiris". Penelitian dia memberikan hasil yang jelas bahwa deskripsi dan cara kerja dinamika jenis tidak cocok dengan perilaku nyata orang. Dia menyarankan untuk menyingkirkan dinamika jenis, karena itu tidak membantu, tetapi malah menghalangi pemahaman tentang kepribadian. Urutan fungsi 1 ke 4 yang diasumsikan hanya terjadi pada 1 dari 540 hasil tes.

Empat dikotomi

Carl Jung

	Subjektif	Objektif
Persepsi	Intuition/Sensing	Introversi/Ekstraversi 1
Judging (menghakim)	Feeling/Thinking	Introversi/Ekstraversi 2

Myers–Briggs, 16 Personalities

		Subjektif	Objektif
Deduksi	Deduksi, Induksi	Intuition/Sensing	Introversi/Ekstraversi
		Intuition/Observing
Induksi	Retroduksi	Feeling/Thinking	Perception/Judging
			Prospecting/Judging

4 pasangan preferensi atau "dikotomi" ditampilkan dalam tabel sebelah kanan.

Istilah yang digunakan untuk setiap dikotomi memiliki arti teknis spesifik terkait MBTI, yang berbeda dengan penggunaannya sehari-hari. Contohnya, orang yang menyukai penilaian di atas persepsi tidak semestinya lebih "menghakimi" atau kurang "tanggap", atau bahwa instrumen MBTI mengukur bakat; itu hanya menandakan preferensi suatu hal di atas hal lain. Seseorang yang melaporkan skor tinggi untuk ekstraversi daripada introversi tidak dapat digambarkan dengan tepat sebagai lebih ekstrover, mereka hanya memiliki preferensi yang jelas.

Skor poin pada masing-masing dikotomi dapat cukup bervariasi dari orang ke orang lain, bahkan di antara orang dengan jenis yang sama. Tetapi, Isabel Myers menganggap arah preferensi (misalnya, E vs. I) lebih penting daripada seberapa kuat preferensinya (misalnya, sangat jelas vs. sedikit). Ekspresi jenis psikologis seseorang lebih dari sekadar total 4 preferensi individual. Preferensi-preferensi berinteraksi melalui dinamika jenis dan pengembangan jenis.

Sikap: ekstraversi/introversi

Literatur Myers–Briggs menggunakan istilah ekstraversi dan introversi sebagaimana Jung pertama menggunakannya. Secara harfiah, ekstraversi berarti beralih keluar, dan introversi berarti beralih kedalam. Definisi khusus tersebut agak berbeda dari penggunaan umum kata-katanya. Ekstraversi adalah ejaan yang digunakan dalam publikasi MBTI.

Preferensi ekstraversi dan introversi sering dipanggil "sikap". Briggs dan Myers mengakui bahwa setiap fungsi kognitif dapat beroperasi di dunia luar perilaku, tindakan, orang, dan benda ("sikap ekstrover") atau dunia dalam ide dan refleksi ("sikap introver"). Asesmen MBTI menentukan preferensi keseluruhan untuk satu atau yang lain.

Orang yang menginginkan ekstraversi mendapatkan energi dari aksi: mereka cenderung bertindak, kemudian merenung, kemudian bertindak lanjut. Jika mereka tidak aktif, motivasi mereka cenderung menurun. Untuk meningkatkan energi mereka, ekstrovert membutuhkan istirahat dari waktu merenung. Sebaliknya, orang yang menginginkan introversi "menghabiskan" energi melalui aksi: mereka suka merenung, kemudian bertindak, kemudian merenung lagi. Untuk meningkatkan energinya, introvert membutuhkan waktu bersendirian, jauh dari aktivitas.

Aliran ekstrovert diarahkan ke luar kepada orang dan objek, sementara untuk introvert diarahkan ke dalam kepada konsep dan ide. Karakteristik yang kontras antara orang introvert dan ekstrovert antara lain:

• Orang ekstrovert berorientasi aksi, sementara orang introvert berorientasi pikiran.
• Ekstrover mencari luasnya pengetahuan dan pengaruh, sementara introver mencari dalamnya pengetahuan dan pengaruh.
• Ekstrover sering menginginkan interaksi lebih sering, sementara introver menginginkan interaksi lebih mendalam.
• Ekstrover mendapatkan energinya dari waktu dengan orang lain, sementara introver mendapatkan energinya dari waktu bersendirian; mereka mengonsumsi energi mereka melalui proses berlawanan.

Myers–Briggs literature uses the terms extraversion and introversion as Jung first used them. Extraversion means literally outward-turning and introversion, inward-turning. These specific definitions differ somewhat from the popular usage of the words. Extraversion is the spelling used in MBTI publications.

The preferences for extraversion and introversion are often called "attitudes". Briggs and Myers recognized that each of the cognitive functions can operate in the external world of behavior, action, people, and things ("extraverted attitude") or the internal world of ideas and reflection ("introverted attitude"). The MBTI assessment sorts for an overall preference for one or the other.

People who prefer extraversion draw energy from action: they tend to act, then reflect, then act further. If they are inactive, their motivation tends to decline. To rebuild their energy, extraverts need breaks from time spent in reflection. Conversely, those who prefer introversion "expend" energy through action: they prefer to reflect, then act, then reflect again. To rebuild their energy, introverts need quiet time alone, away from activity.

An extravert's flow is directed outward toward people and objects, whereas the introvert's is directed inward toward concepts and ideas. Contrasting characteristics between extraverted and introverted people include:

• Extraverted are action-oriented, while introverted are thought-oriented.
• Extraverted seek breadth of knowledge and influence, while introverted seek depth of knowledge and influence.
• Extraverted often prefer more frequent interaction, while introverted prefer more substantial interaction.
• Extraverted recharge and get their energy from spending time with people, while introverted recharge and get their energy from spending time alone; they consume their energy through the opposite process.

Fungsi: sensasi/intuisi dan pemikiran/perasaan

Artikel utama: Fungsi kognitif Jung

Jung mengidentifikasikan dua pasangan fungsi psikologis:

• Dua fungsi mengamati: sensasi (biasanya dipanggil sensingdalam tulisan MBTI) dan intuisi
• Dua fungsi menghakimi: memikir dan merasa

Menurut model tipologi Jung, setiap orang lebih dominan dan ahli menggunakan salah satu dari 4 fungsi tersebut daripada 3 fungsi lain; namun, semua 4 fungsi digunakan pada waktu berbeda tergantung keadaan. Karena setiap fungsi dapat muncul sebagai sikap ekstrover atau introver. Model Jung termasuk 8 kombinasi fungsi dan sikap, dengan 4 fungsi sadar dan 4 fungsi tidak sadar. John Beebe membuat model yang menggabungkan ide pola dasar dan diri dialogis dengan fungsi-fungsi, setiap fungsi dipandang sebagai melakukan peran pola dasar dalam dialog internal.

Sensasi dan intuisi adalah fungsi pengumpulan informasi (mengamati). Mereka menggambarkan bagaimana informasi baru dipahami dan ditafsirkan. Orang yang menyukai sensasi cenderung lebih memercayai informasi yang konkret, nyata, dan saat ini: yaitu, informasi yang dapat dipahami oleh lima penginderaan. Mereka cenderung mencurigai firasat, yang dirasa "entah dari mana". Mereka suka mencari detail dan fakta. Untuk mereka, artinya berada dalam data. Di sisi lain, orang yang menyukai intuisi cenderung memercayai informasi yang kurang bergantung pada penginderaan, yang dapat diasosiasikan dengan informasi lain (diingat atau ditemukan dengan mencari konteks atau pola yang lebih luas). Mereka mungkin lebih tertarik pada kesempatan masa depan. Untuk mereka, artinya berada dalam teori dan prinsip mendasar yang bermanifestasi dalam datanya.

Pemikiran dan perasaan adalah fungsi penentuan pilihan (menghakimi). Fungsi berpikir dan merasa kedua-duanya digunakan untuk membuat pilihan rasional, berdasarkan data yang didapatkan dari fungsi pengumpulan informasi (sensasi atau intuisi). Orang yang menyukai pemikiran cenderung menentukan sesuatu dari pandangan yang lebih terputus, mengukur pilihannya dari apa yang dirasa memungkinkan, logis, kausal, konsisten, dan cocok dengan seperangkat aturan yang diberikan. Orang yang menyukai perasaan cenderung membuat pilihan dengan berasosiasi atau berempati dengan situasinya, melihatnya "dari dalam" dan mempertimbangkan situasinya untuk mencapai, secara seimbang, keharmonisan, konsensus, dan kesesuaian yang besar, mempertimbangkan kebutuhan orang yang terlibat. Pemikir biasanya kesulitan berinteraksi dengan orang yang tidak konsisten atau logis, dan cenderung memberikan umpan balik yang sangat langsung kepada orang lain. Mereka peduli kebenaran dan menggangapnya lebih penting.

Seperti yang dicatat sebelumnya, orang yang menyukai pemikiran tidak selalu, dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, "berpikir lebih baik" daripada orang yang menyukai perasaan, dalam kewajaran; preferensi berlawanan dianggap cara yang sama rasionalnya untuk mengambil keputusan (dan, dalam hal apapun, asesmen MBTI adalah pengukuran preferensi, bukan kemampuan). Demikian pula, orang yang menginginkan perasaan tidak selalu memiliki reaksi emosional yang "lebih baik" daripada rekan mereka yang suka pemikiran.

Jung identified two pairs of psychological functions:

• Two perceiving functions: sensation (usually called sensing in MBTI writings) and intuition
• Two judging functions: thinking and feeling

According to Jung's typology model, each person uses one of these four functions more dominantly and proficiently than the other three; however, all four functions are used at different times depending on the circumstances. Because each function can manifest in either an extraverted or an introverted attitude, Jung's model includes eight combinations of functions and attitudes, four of which are largely conscious and four unconscious. John Beebe created a model that combines ideas of archetypes and the dialogical self with functions, each function viewed as performing the role of an archetype within an internal dialog.

Sensing and intuition are the information-gathering (perceiving) functions. They describe how new information is understood and interpreted. People who prefer sensing are more likely to trust information that is in the present, tangible, and concrete: that is, information that can be understood by the five senses. They tend to distrust hunches, which seem to come "out of nowhere". They prefer to look for details and facts. For them, the meaning is in the data. On the other hand, those who prefer intuition tend to trust information that is less dependent upon the senses, that can be associated with other information (either remembered or discovered by seeking a wider context or pattern). They may be more interested in future possibilities. For them, the meaning is in the underlying theory and principles which are manifested in the data.

Thinking and feeling are the decision-making (judging) functions. The thinking and feeling functions are both used to make rational decisions, based on the data received from their information-gathering functions (sensing or intuition). Those who prefer thinking tend to decide things from a more detached standpoint, measuring the decision by what seems reasonable, logical, causal, consistent, and matching a given set of rules. Those who prefer feeling tend to come to decisions by associating or empathizing with the situation, looking at it 'from the inside' and weighing the situation to achieve, on balance, the greatest harmony, consensus and fit, considering the needs of the people involved. Thinkers usually have trouble interacting with people who are inconsistent or illogical, and tend to give very direct feedback to others. They are concerned with the truth and view it as more important.

As noted already, people who prefer thinking do not necessarily, in the everyday sense, "think better" than their feeling counterparts, in the common sense; the opposite preference is considered an equally rational way of coming to decisions (and, in any case, the MBTI assessment is a measure of preference, not ability). Similarly, those who prefer feeling do not necessarily have "better" emotional reactions than their thinking counterparts.

Fungsi dominan

Menurut Jung, orang menggunakan semua 4 fungsi kognitif. Namun, satu fungsi biasanya digunakan lebih sadar dan berani. Fungsi dominan ini didukung oleh fungsi sekunder (pendukung), dan pada tingkat yang lebih rendah fungsi tersier. Fungsi keempat dan paling tidak sadar selalu lawan dari fungsi dominan. Myers memanggil fungsi inferior sebagai "bayangan".

Empat fungsi tersebut beroperasi bersama dengan sikap (ekstraversi dan introversi). Setiap fungsi digunakan secara ekstrover atau introver. Seseorang dimana fungsi dominannya intuisi ekstrover, misalnya, menggunakan intuisi dengan sangat berbeda dibandingkan seseorang dimana fungsi dominannya intuisi introver.

According to Jung, people use all four cognitive functions. However, one function is generally used in a more conscious and confident way. This dominant function is supported by the secondary (auxiliary) function, and to a lesser degree the tertiary function. The fourth and least conscious function is always the opposite of the dominant function. Myers called this inferior function the "shadow."

The four functions operate in conjunction with the attitudes (extraversion and introversion). Each function is used in either an extraverted or introverted way. A person whose dominant function is extraverted intuition, for example, uses intuition very differently from someone whose dominant function is introverted intuition.

Preferensi gaya hidup: menghakimi/mengamati:

Myers dan Briggs menambahkan dimensi baru ke model tipologis Jung dengan mengidentifikasikan bahwa orang juga memiliki preferensi untuk menggunakan fungsi menghakimi (pemikiran atau perasaan) atau fungsi mengamati (sensasi atau intuisi) ketika menghubung ke dunia luar (ekstraversi).

Mereka menetapkan bahwa jenis dengan preferensi untuk menghakimi menunjukkan kepada dunia fungsi menghakimi yang mereka inginkan (pemikiran atau perasaan). Orang yang menyukai persepsi menunjukkan kepada dunia fungsi mengamati yang mereka inginkan (senasi atau intuisi). Menurut Myers, jenis menghakimi suka "menyelesaikan masalah", sementara jenis pengamat suka "membiarkan pilihan terbuka". Jadi, jenis TJ cenderung tampak ke dunia sebagai logis dan jenis FJ sebagai berempati. Jenis SP cenderung tampak konkret dan jenis NP sebagai abstrak.

J atau P mengindikasika fungsi dominan untuk orang ekstrovert, sementara untuk orang introvert, J atau P mengindikasikan fungsi pendukungnya. Orang introvert cenderung menampilkan fungsi dominan ke luar hanya dalam hal "penting untuk dunia dalam mereka".

Contohnya, karena jenis ENTJ ekstrover, J menandakan bahwa fungsi dominan adalah fungsi menghakim (pemikiran ekstrover), dan fungsi pendukungnya berupa fungsi mengamati (intuisi introver). Fungsi tersiernya adalah sensasi dan fungsi inferiornya adalah perasaan introver. Sebaliknya, karena jenis INTJ introver, J mengindikasikan bahwa fungsi pendukung adalah fungsi menghakimi yang diinginkan (pemikiran ekstrover), dengan fungsi dominan berupa fungsi mengamati (intuisi introver). Fungsi tersier mereka adalah perasaan dan fungsi inferior mereka adalah sensasi ekstrover.

Myers and Briggs added another dimension to Jung's typological model by identifying that people also have a preference for using either the judging function (thinking or feeling) or their perceiving function (sensing or intuition) when relating to the outside world (extraversion).

They held that types with a preference for judging show the world their preferred judging function (thinking or feeling). Those types who prefer perception show the world their preferred perceiving function (sensing or intuition). According to Myers, judging types like to "have matters settled", while perceptive types prefer to "keep decisions open". So, TJ types tend to appear to the world as logical and FJ types as empathetic. SP types tend to appear as concrete and NP types as abstract.

The J or P indicates the dominant function for extraverts, whereas for introverts, the J or P indicates their auxiliary function. Introverts tend to show their dominant function outwardly only in matters "important to their inner worlds".

For example, because the ENTJ type is extraverted, the J indicates that the dominant function is the preferred judging function (extraverted thinking). The ENTJ type introverts the auxiliary perceiving function (introverted intuition). Their tertiary function is sensing and their inferior function is introverted feeling. Conversely, because the INTJ type is introverted, the J instead indicates that the auxiliary function is the preferred judging function (extraverted thinking). The INTJ type introverts the dominant perceiving function (introverted intuition). Their tertiary function is feeling and their inferior function is extraverted sensing.

Accuracy and validity

... a major task in interpretation is to help respondents with less clear reported preferences arrive at a comfortable and accurate assessment of their type. This is accomplished in an interpretation session mainly through an exploration of how type preferences appear in client behaviors.

The MBTI Manual, Chapter 6: Interpreting Results of the MBTI and Verifying Type

Despite its popularity, it has been widely regarded as pseudoscience by the scientific community. The validity (statistical validity and test validity) of the MBTI as a psychometric instrument has been the subject of much criticism. Media reports have called the test "pretty much meaningless", and "one of the worst personality tests in existence". The psychologist Adam Grant is especially vocal against MBTI. He called it "the fad that won't die" in a Psychology Today article. Psychometric specialist Robert Hogan wrote: "Most personality psychologists regard the MBTI as little more than an elaborate Chinese fortune cookie...". Nicholas Campion comments that this is "a fascinating example of 'disguised astrology', masquerading as science in order to claim respectability."

It has been estimated that between a third and a half of the published material on the MBTI has been produced for the special conferences of the Center for the Application of Psychological Type (which provide the training in the MBTI, and are funded by sales of the MBTI) or as papers in the Journal of Psychological Type (which is edited and supported by Myers–Briggs advocates and by sales of the indicator). It has been argued that this reflects a lack of critical scrutiny. Many of the studies that endorse MBTI are methodologically weak or unscientific. A 1996 review by Gardner and Martinko concluded: "It is clear that efforts to detect simplistic linkages between type preferences and managerial effectiveness have been disappointing. Indeed, given the mixed quality of research and the inconsistent findings, no definitive conclusion regarding these relationships can be drawn."

The test has been likened to horoscopes, as both rely on the Barnum effect, flattery, and confirmation bias, leading participants to personally identify with descriptions that are somewhat desirable, vague, and widely applicable. MBTI is not recommended in counseling.

Little evidence for dichotomies

As previously stated in the Pengguna:Dare2Leap/Bak pasir 4 § Four dichotomies section, Isabel Myers considered the direction of the preference (for example, E vs. I) to be more important than the degree of the preference. Statistically, this would mean that scores on each MBTI scale would show a bimodal distribution with most people scoring near the ends of the scales, thus dividing people into either, e.g., an extraverted or an introverted psychological type. However, most studies have found that scores on the individual scales were actually distributed in a centrally peaked manner, similar to a normal distribution, indicating that the majority of people were actually in the middle of the scale and were thus neither clearly introverted nor extraverted. Most personality traits do show a normal distribution of scores from low to high, with about 15% of people at the low end, about 15% at the high end and the majority of people in the middle ranges. But in order for the MBTI to be scored, a cut-off line is used at the middle of each scale and all those scoring below the line are classified as a low type and those scoring above the line are given the opposite type. Thus, psychometric assessment research fails to support the concept of type, but rather shows that most people lie near the middle of a continuous curve.

Although we do not conclude that the absence of bimodality necessarily proves that the MBTI developers' theory-based assumption of categorical "types" of personality is invalid, the absence of empirical bimodality in IRT-based research of MBTI scores does indeed remove a potentially powerful line of evidence that was previously available to "type" advocates to cite in defense of their position.

Little evidence for "dynamic" type stack

Some MBTI supporters argue that the application of type dynamics to MBTI (e.g., where inferred "dominant" or "auxiliary" functions like Se / "Extraverted Sensing" or Ni / "Introverted Intuition" are presumed to exist) is a logical category error that has little empirical evidence backing it. Instead, they argue that Myers–Briggs validity as a psychometric tool is highest when each type of category is viewed independently as a dichotomy.

Validity and utility

The content of the MBTI scales is problematic. In 1991, a National Academy of Sciences committee reviewed data from MBTI research studies and concluded that only the I-E scale has high correlations with comparable scales of other instruments and low correlations with instruments designed to assess different concepts, showing strong validity. In contrast, the S-N and T-F scales show relatively weak validity. The 1991 review committee concluded at the time there was "not sufficient, well-designed research to justify the use of the MBTI in career counseling programs". This study based its measurement of validity on "criterion-related validity (i.e. does the MBTI predict specific outcomes related to interpersonal relations or career success/job performance?)." The committee stressed the discrepancy between popularity of the MBTI and research results stating, "the popularity of this instrument in the absence of proven scientific worth is troublesome." There is insufficient evidence to make claims about utility, particularly of the four letter type derived from a person's responses to the MBTI items.

Lack of objectivity

The accuracy of the MBTI depends on honest self-reporting. Unlike some personality questionnaires, such as the 16PF Questionnaire, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, or the Personality Assessment Inventory, the MBTI does not use validity scales to assess exaggerated or socially desirable responses. As a result, individuals motivated to do so can fake their responses. One study found a weak but statistically significant correlation between the MBTI judging scale and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire lie scale, suggesting that more socially conformant individuals are more likely to be considered judging according to the MBTI. If respondents "fear they have something to lose, they may answer as they assume they should." However, the MBTI ethical guidelines state, "It is unethical and in many cases illegal to require job applicants to take the Indicator if the results will be used to screen out applicants." The intent of the MBTI is to provide "a framework for understanding individual differences, and... a dynamic model of individual development".

Terminology

The terminology of the MBTI has been criticized as being very "vague and general", so as to allow any kind of behavior to fit any personality type, which may result in the Barnum effect, where people give a high rating to a positive description that supposedly applies specifically to them. Others argue that while the MBTI type descriptions are brief, they are also distinctive and precise. Some theorists, such as David Keirsey, have expanded on the MBTI descriptions, providing even greater detail. For instance, Keirsey's descriptions of his four temperaments, which he correlated with the sixteen MBTI personality types, show how the temperaments differ in terms of language use, intellectual orientation, educational and vocational interests, social orientation, self-image, personal values, social roles, and characteristic hand gestures.

Factor analysis

Researchers have reported that the JP and the SN scales correlate with one another. One factor-analytic study based on (N=1291) college-aged students found six different factors instead of the four purported dimensions, thereby raising doubts as to the construct validity of the MBTI.

Correlates

According to Hans Eysenck:

The main dimension in the MBTI is called E-I, or extraversion-introversion; this is mostly a sociability scale, correlating quite well with the MMPI social introversion scale (negatively) and the Eysenck Extraversion scale (positively). Unfortunately, the scale also has a loading on neuroticism, which correlates with the introverted end. Thus introversion correlates roughly (i.e., averaging values for males and females) −.44 with dominance, +.37 with abasement, +.46 with counselling readiness, −.52 with self-confidence, −.36 with personal adjustment, and −.45 with empathy. The failure of the scale to disentangle Introversion and Neuroticism (there is no scale for neurotic and other psychopathological attributes in the MBTI) is its worst feature, only equalled by the failure to use factor analysis in order to test the arrangement of items in the scale.

Reliability

The test-retest reliability of the MBTI tends to be low. Large numbers of people (between 39% and 76% of respondents) obtain different type classifications when retaking the indicator after only five weeks. A 2013 Fortune Magazine article titled "Have we all been duped by the Myers-Briggs Test?" wrote:

“ The interesting – and somewhat alarming – fact about the MBTI is that, despite its popularity, it has been subject to sustained criticism by professional psychologists for over three decades. One problem is that it displays what statisticians call low "test-retest reliability." So if you retake the test after only a five-week gap, there's around a 50% chance that you will fall into a different personality category compared to the first time you took the test.

A second criticism is that the MBTI mistakenly assumes that personality falls into mutually exclusive categories. ... The consequence is that the scores of two people labelled "introverted" and "extraverted" may be almost exactly the same, but they could be placed into different categories since they fall on either side of an imaginary dividing line.

”

Within each dichotomy scale, as measured on Form G, about 83% of categorizations remain the same when people are retested within nine months and around 75% when retested after nine months. About 50% of people re-administered the MBTI within nine months remain the same overall type and 36% the same type after more than nine months. For Form M (the most current form of the MBTI instrument), the MBTI Manual reports that these scores are higher.

In one study, when people were asked to compare their preferred type to that assigned by the MBTI assessment, only half of people chose the same profile.

Robert and Mary Capraro in 2002 meta-analysis published in the journal Educational and Psychological Measurement found out that "In general, the MBTI and its scales yielded scores with strong internal consistency and test-retest reliability estimates, although variation was observed." The analysis found that of 210 studies from 1998 to 2001, 14 (7%) reported directly on the reliability of the data, 26% reported reliability via prior studies or the test manual, and 56% did not mention reliability at all.

It has been argued that criticisms regarding the MBTI mostly come down to questions regarding the validity of its origins, not questions regarding the validity of the MBTI's usefulness. Others argue that the MBTI can be a reliable measurement of personality, and "like all measures, the MBTI yields scores that are dependent on sample characteristics and testing conditions".

Statistics

A 1973 study of university students in the United States found the INFP type was the most common type among students studying the fine arts and art education subjects, with 36% of fine arts students and 26% of art education students being INFPs. A 1973 study of the personality types of teachers in the United States found Intuitive-Perceptive types (ENFP, INFP, ENTP, INTP) were over-represented in teachers of subjects such as English, social studies and art, as opposed to science and mathematics, which featured more sensing (S) and judging (J) types. A questionnaire of 27,787 high school students suggested INFP students among them showed a significant preference for art, English, and music subjects.

Utility

Isabel Myers claimed that the proportion of different personality types varied by choice of career or course of study. However, researchers examining the proportions of each type within varying professions report that the proportion of MBTI types within each occupation is close to that within a random sample of the population. Some researchers have expressed reservations about the relevance of type to job satisfaction, as well as concerns about the potential misuse of the instrument in labeling people.

The Myers–Briggs Company, then known as Consulting Psychologists Press (and later CPP), became the exclusive publisher of the MBTI in 1975. They call it "the world's most widely used personality assessment", with as many as two million assessments administered annually. The Myers-Briggs Company and other proponents state that the indicator meets or exceeds the reliability of other psychological instruments.

The MBTI has poor predictive validity of employees' job performance ratings. As noted above under Precepts and ethics, the MBTI measures preferences, not ability. The use of the MBTI as a predictor of job success is expressly discouraged in the Manual. It is argued that the MBTI only continues to be popular because many people are qualified to administer it, it is not difficult to understand, and there are many supporting books, websites and other sources which are readily available to the general public.

Correlations with other instruments

Keirsey temperaments

David Keirsey developed the Keirsey Temperament Sorter after learning about the MBTI system, though he traces four "temperaments" back to Ancient Greek traditions. He maps these temperaments to the Myers–Briggs groupings SP, SJ, NF, and NT. He also gives each of the 16 MBTI types a name, as shown in the below table.

IS_IT_EJ

Inspector

IS_IF_EJ

Protector

IN_IF_EJ

Counselor

IN_IT_EJ

Mastermind

IS_ET_IP

Crafter

IS_EF_IP

Composer

IN_EF_IP

Healer

IN_ET_IP

Architect

ES_ET_IP

Promoter

ES_EF_IP

Performer

EN_EF_IP

Champion

EN_ET_IP

Inventor

ES_IT_EJ

Supervisor

ES_IF_EJ

Provider

EN_IF_EJ

Teacher

EN_IT_EJ

Fieldmarshal

Big Five

McCrae and Costa based their Five Factor Model (FFM) on Goldberg's Big Five theory. McCrae and Costa present correlations between the MBTI scales and the Big Five personality constructs measured, for example, by the NEO-PI-R. The five purported personality constructs have been labeled: extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism (emotional instability), although there is not universal agreement on the Big Five theory and the related Five-Factor Model (FFM). The following correlations are based on the results from 267 men and 201 women as part of a longitudinal study of aging.

These correlations refer to the second letter shown, i.e., the table shows that I and P have negative correlations with extraversion and conscientiousness, respectively, while F and N have positive correlations with agreeableness and openness, respectively. These results suggest that the four MBTI scales can be incorporated within the Big Five personality trait constructs, but that the MBTI lacks a measure for emotional stability dimension of the Big Five (though the TDI, discussed above, has addressed that dimension). Emotional stability (or neuroticism) is a predictor of depression and anxiety disorders.

These findings led McCrae and Costa to conclude that, "correlational analyses showed that the four MBTI indices did measure aspects of four of the five major dimensions of normal personality. The five-factor model provides an alternative basis for interpreting MBTI findings within a broader, more commonly shared conceptual framework." However, "there was no support for the view that the MBTI measures truly dichotomous preferences or qualitatively distinct types, instead, the instrument measures four relatively independent dimensions."

Popularity in Korea and China

At the time of the COVID-19 pandemic, MBTI testing became a fad among young South Koreans who were using it in an attempt to find compatible dating partners. The fad originated with a website called 16Personalities.com, which offers a free approximation of the official paid test. Both independent experts and a representative of the MBTI publishing company have cautioned against using the MBTI test for dating, as the test was not designed for this purpose. South Korea experienced a similar trend in the early 2000s with the blood type personality theory.

One survey reported that by December 2021, nearly half of the population had taken the MBTI personality test. The MBTI personality test also became an issue in 2022 presidential election. In March 2022, Korea JoongAng Daily reported that "A growing number of Korean companies are asking job candidates to reveal their MBTI personality test results, angering job hunters who argue that the test is an unreasonable standard to screen and evaluate their capabilities." A survey of South Korean job-seekers in their twenties found that 60% opposed the use of the test for such purposes.

16Personalities.com also influenced an MBTI fad in China, where some employers and job recruiters have asked applicants about their MBTI or 16Personalities results. The trend in China also led to MBTI-related products, paid services, and social media such as podcasts and memes.

See also

Criticism

• Labeling theory
• Cold reading
• The Personality Brokers

Others

• Adjective Check List (ACL)
• Brain types
• DISC assessment
• Riso–Hudson Enneagram Type Indicator
• FIRO-B
• Holland Codes
• Humorism
• Industrial and organizational psychology § Historical_overview
• Interpersonal compatibility
• Jungian Type Index
• List of tests § Personality tests
• Organizational culture § Kim Cameron and Robert Quinn
• Personality Assessment System
• Personality clash
• Personality psychology
• Revised NEO Personality Inventory
• Roger Birkman § The Birkman Method
• Socionics, a partner theory
• Strong Interest Inventory
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
• Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument
• Personality psychology § Type theories
• Two-factor models of personality § Factors integrated into modern instruments (CPI 260)

References

Works cited

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• Hunsley, John; Lee, Catherine M.; Wood, James M. (2003). "Controversial and questionable assessment techniques". Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. Guilford Press: 39–76. ISBN 1-59385-070-0 – via APA PsycInfo. 
• Johnson, Donald A.; Saunders, David R. (1990-09-01). "Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator-Expanded Analysis Report". Educational and Psychological Measurement (dalam bahasa Inggris). 50 (3): 561–571. doi:10.1177/0013164490503010. ISSN 0013-1644. 
• Jung, C. G. (1971) [1921]. Psychological Types. Collected Works of C. G. Jung. 6 (edisi ke-3rd). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09770-4. 
• Keirsey, David (1998). Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence. Del Mar, CA: Prometheus Nemesis Book Company. ISBN 978-1-885705-02-0. 
• Lilienfeld, Scott O.; Lynn, Steven Jay; Lohr, Jeffrey M. (2014). Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology (dalam bahasa Inggris). Guilford Publications. ISBN 978-1462517510. 
• McCrae, Robert R.; Costa, Paul T. (1989). "Reinterpreting the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator From the Perspective of the Five-Factor Model of Personality". Journal of Personality (dalam bahasa Inggris). 57 (1): 17–40. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb00759.x. ISSN 1467-6494. PMID 2709300. 
• Myers, Isabel B.; McCaulley, Mary H.; Quenk, Naomi L.; Hammer, Allen L. (1998). MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the Myers Briggs type indicator) (edisi ke-3rd). Consulting Psychologists Press. ISBN 978-0-89106-130-4. 
• Myers, Isabel B.; Myers, Peter B. (1995) [1980]. Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type (dalam bahasa Inggris). Mountain View, CA: Davies-Black Publishing. ISBN 978-0-89106-074-1. 
• Nowack, K. (1996). "Is the Myers Briggs Type Indicator the Right Tool to Use?". Performance in Practice, American Society of Training and Development. 6. 
• Pearman, Roger R.; Albritton, Sarah C. (1997). I'm Not Crazy, I'm Just Not You. Davies-Black. ISBN 978-0-89106-096-3. 
• Pittenger, David J. (1993). "Measuring the MBTI... And Coming Up Short" (PDF). Journal of Career Planning and Employment. 54 (1): 48–52. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2006-12-06. 
• Reynierse, James H. (2009). "The Case Against Type Dynamics" (PDF). Journal of Psychological Type. 69 (1): 1–20. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2017-12-30. Diakses tanggal 2017-12-29. 
• Schuwirth, L (2004). "What the educators are saying". BMJ. 328 (7450): 1244. doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7450.1244. PMC 416604 . 
• Stein, Randy; Swan, Alexander B. (February 2019). "Evaluating the validity of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator theory: A teaching tool and window into intuitive psychology". Social and Personality Psychology Compass (dalam bahasa Inggris). 13 (2): e12434. doi:10.1111/spc3.12434. ISSN 1751-9004. 
• Thyer, Bruce A.; Pignotti, Monica (2015). Science and Pseudoscience in Social Work Practice (dalam bahasa Inggris). Springer Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8261-7768-1. 

Further reading

• Dunning, Brian (August 31, 2010). "Skeptoid #221: The Myers-Briggs Personality Test". Skeptoid. 
• Falt, Jack. Bibliography of MBTI/Temperament Books by Author Diarsipkan 2004-10-11 di Wayback Machine.. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
• Georgia State University. GSU Master Teacher Program: On Learning Styles Diarsipkan 2004-11-20 di Wayback Machine.. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
• Jung, Carl Gustav (1965). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Vintage Books: New York, 1965. p. 207
• Krauskopf, Charles J. and Saunders, David R. (1994) Personality and Ability: The Personality Assessment System. Maryland: University Press of America. ISBN 0-8191-9282-1
• Long, Thomas G (2016). "Myers-Briggs and Other Modern Astrologies". Theology Today. 49 (3): 291–295. doi:10.1177/004057369204900301. 
• Pearman, R.; Lombardo, M.; and Eichinger, R. (2005). YOU: Being More Effective In Your MBTI Type. Minn.:Lominger International, Inc.
• Wicklein, Robert C; Rojewski, Jay W (1995). "The Relationship Between Psychological Type and Professional Orientation Among Technology Education Teachers". Journal of Technology Education. 7 (1). doi:10.21061/jte.v7i1.a.5 . hdl:10919/8594 . 

External links

• Media tentang Dare2Leap/Bak pasir 4 di Wikimedia Commons
• Kutipan tentang Psychological Type di Wikikutip
• "Meet Yourself: How to Use the Personality Paint Box". findingaids.lib.msu.edu. December 22, 1926. Diakses tanggal 2023-10-13. 
• Patrick Vermeren, The (uncomfortable) truth of HR and leadership development, TEDxKMA

Category:Analytical psychology Category:Carl Jung Category:Personality tests Category:Personality typologies Category:Pseudoscience