Abad Pertengahan: Perbedaan antara revisi
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{{utama|Gerakan pembaharuan pada abad ke-12|Filsafat Abad Pertengahan|Kesusastraan Abad Pertengahan|Puisi Abad Pertengahan|Kedokteran Abad Pertengahan di Eropa Barat}}
Pada abad ke-11, perkembangan di bidang ilmu filsafat dan ilmu teologi menyebabkan kegiatan ilmiah meningkat. Terjadi perdebatan antara [[realisme filsafat|penganut paham realisme]] dan [[Nominalisme|penganut paham nominalisme]] mengenai konsep "[[Universal (metafisika)|kesemestaan]]". [[diskursus|Wacana-wacana]] filsafati digairahkan kembali oleh penemuan kembali gagasan-gagasan [[Aristoteles]]
[[Berkas:Richard of Wallingford.jpg|jmpl|kiri|lurus|
[[Kekesatriaan|Adab bahaduri]] dan
Secular and religious histories were also produced.<ref name=Davies349>Davies ''Europe'' p. 349</ref> [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] (d. c. 1155) composed his ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'', a collection of stories and legends about [[King Arthur|Arthur]].<ref name=SaulGeoffrey>Saul ''Companion to Medieval England'' pp. 113–114</ref> Other works were more clearly history, such as [[Otto of Freising|Otto von Freising]]'s (d. 1158) ''Gesta Friderici Imperatoris'' detailing the deeds of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, or [[William of Malmesbury]]'s (d. c. 1143) ''Gesta Regum'' on the kings of England.<ref name=Davies349/>
Legal studies advanced during the 12th century. Both secular law and [[canon law]], or ecclesiastical law, were studied in the High Middle Ages. Secular law, or Roman law, was advanced greatly by the discovery of the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' in the 11th century, and by 1100 Roman law was being taught at [[University of Bologna|Bologna]]. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Canon law was also studied, and around 1140 a monk named [[Decretum Gratiani|Gratian]] (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of canon law—the ''[[Decretum Gratiani|Decretum]]''.<ref name=Backman237>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 237–241</ref>
Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of [[Roman numerals]] with the [[decimal]] [[Positional notation|positional number system]] and the invention of [[algebra]], which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]'' from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the [[Schola Medica Salernitana|school at Salerno]].<ref name=Backman241>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 241–246</ref>
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Kajian-kajian hukum maju pada abad ke-12. Hukum sekuler dan [[hukum kanon]], atau hukum gerejawi, dikaji pada Puncak Abad Pertengahan. Hukum sekuler, atau hukum Romawi, sangat dimajukan oleh penemuan ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' pada abad ke-11, dan pada tahun 1100, hukum Romawi diajarkan di [[Universitas Bologna|Bologna]]. Ini berujung pada pencatatan dan standarisasi kitab-kitab hukum di seluruh Eropa Barat. Hukum kanon juga dikaji, dan sekitar tahun 1140, seorang biarawan bernama [[Decretum Gratiani|Gratian]] (dikenal pada abad ke-12), seorang guru di Bologna, menulis apa yang menjadi teks standar dari hukum kanon—''[[Decretum Gratiani|Decretum]]''.<ref name=Backman237>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 237–241</ref>
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