Bumi: Perbedaan antara revisi
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Rescuing 14 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.8.6 |
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|label7 = Busur pulau vulkanik, palung laut, gunung api dasar laut, dan perbukitan}}
Permukaan Bumi bervariasi dari tempat ke tempat. Sekitar 70,8%<ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8"/> permukaan Bumi ditutupi oleh [[air]], dan terdapat banyak [[landas benua]] di bawah permukaan laut. Luas permukaan Bumi yang ditutupi oleh air setara dengan {{val|361.132|end= million|ul=km2}} (139,43 juta sq mi).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=CIA – The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-11-02 |archive-date=2010-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105171656/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Permukaan Bumi yang terendam memiliki bentang pegunungan, termasuk rangkaian punggung tengah samudra dan gunung api bawah laut,<ref name="ngdc2006" /> bentang lainnya adalah [[palung|palung laut]], [[lembah bawah laut]], [[dataran tinggi samudra]], dan [[dataran abisal]]. Sisanya, 29,2% ({{val|148.94|end= million|ul=km2}} atau 57,51 juta sq mi) permukaan Bumi dilingkupi oleh daratan, yang terdiri dari pegunungan, padang gurun, dataran tinggi, pesisir, dan [[geomorfologi]] lainnya.
Permukaan Bumi mengalami pembentukan kembali pada periode waktu geologi karena aktivitas [[erosi dan tektonik|tektonik dan erosi]]. Permukaan Bumi yang terbentuk atau mengalami deformasi akibat tektonika lempeng merupakan permukaan yang mengalami [[pelapukan]] oleh [[curah hujan]], siklus termal, dan pengaruh kimia. [[Glasial|Glasiasi]], [[erosi pantai]], pembentukan [[terumbu karang]], dan tubrukan [[meteorit]] besar<ref name=kring/> merupakan beberapa peristiwa yang memicu pembentukan kembali lanskap permukaan Bumi.
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<ref name="sun_future_schroder">{{cite journal|first1=K.-P.|last1=Schröder|last2=Connon Smith|first2=Robert|year=2008|title=Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|arxiv=0801.4031|volume=386|issue=1|page=155|bibcode=2008MNRAS.386..155S}}<br>See also {{cite news|first=Jason|last=Palmer|url=http://space.newscientist.com/article/dn13369-hope-dims-that-earth-will-survive-suns-death.html?feedId=online-news_rss20|title=Hope dims that Earth will survive Sun's death|date=2008-02-22|work=NewScientist.com news service|accessdate=2008-03-24|archive-date=2008-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317001540/http://space.newscientist.com/article/dn13369-hope-dims-that-earth-will-survive-suns-death.html?feedId=online-news_rss20|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
<ref name=stern20011125>{{cite web|last1=Stern|first1=David P.|date=2001-11-25|url=
<ref name=science288_5473_2002>{{cite journal|last1=Tackley|first1=Paul J.|title=Mantle Convection and Plate Tectonics: Toward an Integrated Physical and Chemical Theory|journal=Science|date=2000-06-16|volume=288|issue=5473|pages=2002–2007|doi=10.1126/science.288.5473.2002|pmid=10856206|bibcode = 2000Sci...288.2002T }}</ref>
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<ref name=ps20_5_16>{{cite journal|last1=Senne|first1=Joseph H.|title=Did Edmund Hillary Climb the Wrong Mountain|journal=Professional Surveyor|year=2000|volume=20|issue=5|pages=16–21}}</ref>
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<ref name=layers_earth>{{cite web|author=Staff|url=http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/part1.html|title=Layers of the Earth|publisher=Volcano World|accessdate=2007-03-11|archive-date=2013-01-19|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6DnLWg22n?url=http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/part1.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
<ref name=jessey>{{cite web|last1=Jessey|first1=David|url=http://geology.csupomona.edu/drjessey/class/Gsc101/Weathering.html|title=Weathering and Sedimentary Rocks|publisher=Cal Poly Pomona|accessdate=2007-03-20|archive-date=2007-07-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703170212/http://geology.csupomona.edu/drjessey/class/Gsc101/Weathering.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
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<ref name=fao1994>{{cite book|author=FAO Staff|year=1995|title=FAO Production Yearbook 1994|edition=Volume 48|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|location=Rome, Italy|isbn=92-5-003844-5}}</ref>
Baris 779:
<ref name=ocean23_2_112>{{Cite journal|last1=Charette|first1=Matthew A.|last2=Smith|first2=Walter H. F.|title=The Volume of Earth's Ocean|journal=Oceanography|volume=23|issue=2|pages=112–114|date=June 2010|url=http://www.tos.org/oceanography/archive/23-2_charette.pdf|accessdate=2013-06-06|doi=10.5670/oceanog.2010.51}}</ref>
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<ref name=kennish2001>{{cite book|first1=Michael J.|last1=Kennish|year=2001|title=Practical handbook of marine science|url=https://archive.org/details/practicalhandboo0000unse_f2m3|page=[https://archive.org/details/practicalhandboo0000unse_f2m3/page/35 35]|edition=3rd|publisher=CRC Press|series=Marine science series|isbn=0-8493-2391-6}}</ref>
Baris 805:
<ref name=sadava_heller2006>{{cite book|last1=Sadava|first1=David E.|last2=Heller|first2=H. Craig|last3=Orians|first3=Gordon H.|title=Life, the Science of Biology|publisher=MacMillan|year=2006|edition=8th|page=1114|isbn=0-7167-7671-5}}</ref>
<ref name=climate_zones>{{cite web|author=Staff|url=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Climate/Older/Climate_Zones.html|title=Climate Zones|publisher=UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs|accessdate=2007-03-24|archive-date=2010-08-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808131632/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/climate/older/Climate_Zones.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
<ref name=sciweek2004>{{cite web|author=Staff|year=2004|url=http://scienceweek.com/2004/rmps-23.htm|title=Stratosphere and Weather; Discovery of the Stratosphere|publisher=Science Week|accessdate=2007-03-14}}</ref>
<ref name=cordoba2004>{{cite web|first1=S. Sanz Fernández|last1=de Córdoba|date=2004-06-21|url=http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp|title=Presentation of the Karman separation line, used as the boundary separating Aeronautics and Astronautics|publisher=Fédération Aéronautique Internationale|accessdate=2007-04-21|archive-date=2011-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709114431/http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
<ref name=jas31_4_1118>{{cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=S. C.|last2=Donahue|first2=T. M.|title=The Aeronomy of Hydrogen in the Atmosphere of the Earth|journal=Journal of Atmospheric Sciences|year=1974|volume=31|issue=4|pages=1118–1136|bibcode=1974JAtS...31.1118L|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1974)031<1118:TAOHIT>2.0.CO;2}}</ref>
Baris 815:
<ref name=sci293_5531_839>{{cite journal|title=Biogenic Methane, Hydrogen Escape, and the Irreversible Oxidation of Early Earth|last1=Catling|first1=David C.|last2=Zahnle|first2=Kevin J.|last3=McKay|first3=Christopher P.|journal=Science|volume=293|issue=5531|pages=839–843|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/293/5531/839|doi=10.1126/science.1061976|year=2001|pmid=11486082|bibcode = 2001Sci...293..839C }}</ref>
<ref name=abedon1997>{{cite web|last1=Abedon|first1=Stephen T.|date=1997-03-31|url=http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm|title=History of Earth|publisher=Ohio State University|accessdate=2007-03-19|archive-date=2013-03-10|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6F17z629O?url=http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
<ref name=arwps4_265>{{cite journal|last1=Hunten|first1=D. M.|title=Hydrogen loss from the terrestrial planets|journal=Annual review of earth and planetary sciences|year=1976|volume=4|issue=1|pages=265–292|bibcode=1976AREPS...4..265H|doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.04.050176.001405|last2=Donahue|first2=T. M}}</ref>
Baris 825:
<ref name=stern2005>{{cite web|last1=Stern|first1=David P.|date=2005-07-08|url=http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/Education/wmap.html|title=Exploration of the Earth's Magnetosphere|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2007-03-21}}</ref>
<ref name=USNO_TSD>{{cite web|title=Leap seconds|publisher=Time Service Department, USNO|url=http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html|accessdate=2008-09-23|archive-date=2012-05-27|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/67yIZgtef?url=http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
<ref name=IERS>{{cite web|author=Staff|date=2007-08-07|url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/models/constants.html|title=Useful Constants|publisher=[[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]]|accessdate=2008-09-23}}</ref>
Baris 831:
<ref name=seidelmann1992>{{cite book|last1=Seidelmann|first1=P. Kenneth|year=1992|title=Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac|page=48|publisher=University Science Books|location=Mill Valley, CA|isbn=0-935702-68-7}}</ref>
<ref name=iers1623>{{cite web|author=Staff|url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html|title=IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86400s ... since 1623|publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS)|accessdate=2008-09-23|archive-date=2008-10-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083543/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html|dead-url=yes}}—Graph at end.</ref>
<ref name=iers1962>{{cite web|author=Staff|url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813203913/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html|archivedate=2007-08-13|title=IERS Variations in the duration of the day 1962–2005|publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS)|accessdate=2008-09-23}}</ref>
Baris 853:
<ref name=williams20051230>{{cite web|last1=Williams|first1=Jack|date=2005-12-20|url=http://www.usatoday.com/weather/tg/wseason/wseason.htm|title=Earth's tilt creates seasons|publisher=USAToday|accessdate=2007-03-17}}</ref>
<ref name=fisher19960205>{{cite web|last1=Fisher|first1=Rick|date=1996-02-05|url=http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~rfisher/Ephemerides/earth_rot.html|title=Earth Rotation and Equatorial Coordinates|publisher=National Radio Astronomy Observatory|accessdate=2007-03-21|archive-date=2011-08-22|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/617EkMYXJ?url=http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~rfisher/Ephemerides/earth_rot.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
<ref name=espenak_meeus20070207>{{cite web|last1=Espenak|first1=F.|last2=Meeus|first2=J.|date=2007-02-07|url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html|title=Secular acceleration of the Moon|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2007-04-20|archiveurl=https://archive.is/EtmF|archivedate=2012-12-05}}</ref>
Baris 886:
<ref name=un2006>{{cite web|author=Staff|url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905200753/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm|archivedate=2009-09-05|title=World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=2007-03-07|dead-url=no}}</ref>
<ref name=prb2007>{{cite web|author=Staff|year=2007|url=http://www.prb.org/Educators/TeachersGuides/HumanPopulation/PopulationGrowth/QuestionAnswer.aspx|title=Human Population: Fundamentals of Growth: Growth|publisher=Population Reference Bureau|accessdate=2007-03-31|archive-date=2013-02-10|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EKxj3SWs?url=http://www.prb.org/Educators/TeachersGuides/HumanPopulation/PopulationGrowth/QuestionAnswer.aspx|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
<ref name=hessd4_439>{{cite journal|last1=Peel|first1=M. C.|last2=Finlayson|first2=B. L.|last3=McMahon|first3=T. A.|title=Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions|year=2007|volume=4|issue=2|pages=439–473|url=http://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci-discuss.net/4/439/2007/hessd-4-439-2007.html|accessdate=2007-03-31|doi=10.5194/hessd-4-439-2007}}</ref>
Baris 918:
<ref name=Dutch2002>{{cite journal|last1=Dutch|first1=S. I.|year=2002|title=Religion as belief versus religion as fact|journal=Journal of Geoscience Education|volume=50|issue=2|pages=137–144|url=http://nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Dutch_v50n2p137.pdf|accessdate=2008-04-28|format=PDF}}</ref>
<ref name=edis2003>{{cite book|first1=Taner|last1=Edis|year=2003|title=A World Designed by God: Science and Creationism in Contemporary Islam|publisher=Amherst: Prometheus|url=http://www2.truman.edu/~edis/writings/articles/CFI-2001.pdf|isbn=1-59102-064-6|accessdate=2008-04-28|format=PDF|archive-date=2008-05-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527192629/http://www2.truman.edu/~edis/writings/articles/CFI-2001.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
<ref name=jge53_3_319>{{cite journal|last1=Ross|first1=M. R.|year=2005|title=Who Believes What? Clearing up Confusion over Intelligent Design and Young-Earth Creationism|journal=Journal of Geoscience Education|volume=53|issue=3|page=319|url=http://www.nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Ross_v53n3p319.pdf|accessdate=2008-04-28|format=PDF}}</ref>
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