Flu Spanyol: Perbedaan antara revisi

| virus_strain = Galur [[Virus influenza A subtipe H1N1|A/H1N1Pubg]]

| deaths = 17–100 juta (perkiraan)<ref name="brutal">{{cite web |last1=Hagemann |first1=Hannah |title=The 1918 Flu Pandemic Was Brutal, Killing More Than 50 Million People Worldwide |url=https://www.npr.org/2020/04/02/826358104/the-1918-flu-pandemic-was-brutal-killing-as-many-as-100-million-people-worldwide |website=NPR |accessdate=24 July 2020 |date=2 Apr 2020 |archive-date=2021-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119213925/https://www.npr.org/2020/04/02/826358104/the-1918-flu-pandemic-was-brutal-killing-as-many-as-100-million-people-worldwide |dead-url=no }}</ref>

'''Flu Spanyol''', yang juga dikenal dengan '''pandemi flu 1918''', adalah [[pandemi influenza]] yang sangat sangat mematikan yang disebabkan oleh [[virus influenza A subtipe H1N1]]. Virus ini menjangkiti sekitar 500 juta orang (sepertiga dari populasi dunia pada saat itu) dalam empat gelombang berturut-turut dari Februari 1918 hingga April 1920. Korban meninggal biasanya diperkirakan antara 17 juta dan 50 juta jiwa, dan mungkin mencapai 100 juta jiwa, sehingga pandemi ini menjadi salah satu [[daftar epidemi|pandemi paling mematikan]] dalam sejarah umat manusia.<ref name="pmid30202996"/><ref>{{cite news|title=History's deadliest pandemics, from ancient Rome to modern America|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2020/local/retropolis/coronavirus-deadliest-pandemics/|date=7 April 2020|access-date=11 April 2020 |first=Michael S .|last=Rosenwald | name-list-style = vanc |work=Washington Post|url-status=live|url-access=subscription|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200407204000/https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2020/local/retropolis/coronavirus-deadliest-pandemics/ |archive-date=2020-04-07}}</ref>

Kebanyakan wabah influenza menewaskan merekapenduduk yang sangatusia muda dan sangatusia tua dengan perbandingan yang tidak berimbang, dengan tingkat kelangsungan hidup yang lebih tinggi bagi mereka yang berada di antaranya, tetapi pandemi flu Spanyol mengakibatkan tingkat kematian yang lebih tinggi dari perkiraan bagi remaja.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gagnon A, Miller MS, Hallman SA, Bourbeau R, Herring DA, Earn DJ, Madrenas J | title = Age-specific mortality during the 1918 influenza pandemic: unravelling the mystery of high young adult mortality | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 8 | pages = e69586 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23940526 | pmc = 3734171 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0069586 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...869586G | doi-access = free }}</ref> Ilmuwan menawarkan beberapa penjelasan yang mungkin bagi tingkat kematian yang tinggi semasa pandemi. Beberapa analisis menunjukkan virus itu sangat mematikan karena memicu [[badai sitokin]] yang merusak [[sistem imun]] yang lebih kuat pada remaja.{{sfn|Barry|2004b}} Analisis yang berlawanan pada 2007 dari jurnal kedokteran dari zaman pandemi menemukan bahwa [[infeksi virus]] tidak lebih agresif daripada galur [[influenza]] lainnya.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = MacCallum WG |year=1919 |title=Pathology of the pneumonia following influenza |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1423419 |journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=72 |issue=10 |pages=720–23 |doi=10.1001/jama.1919.02610100028012 |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125210346/https://zenodo.org/record/1423419 |archive-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hirsch |first1=Edwin F. |first2=Marion |last2=McKinney | name-list-style = vanc |year=1919 |title=An epidemic of pneumococcus broncho-pneumonia |journal=Journal of Infectious Diseases |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=594–617 |doi=10.1093/infdis/24.6.594 |jstor= 30080493 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1431769 |access-date=2020-11-13 |archive-date=2020-07-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724111322/https://zenodo.org/record/1431769 |dead-url=no }}</ref> Sebaliknya, [[malagizi]], kamp medis dan rumah sakit yang penuh, serta [[higienis|higienitas]] yang buruk, diperparah pula oleh perang pada saat itu, mendorong [[superinfeksi]] bakteri. Superinfeksi ini menewaskan sebagian besar korban.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brundage JF, Shanks GD | title = What really happened during the 1918 influenza pandemic? The importance of bacterial secondary infections | journal = The Journal of Infectious Diseases | volume = 196 | issue = 11 | pages = 1717–18; author reply 1718–19 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 18008258 | doi = 10.1086/522355 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Morens DM, Fauci AS | title = The 1918 influenza pandemic: insights for the 21st century | journal = The Journal of Infectious Diseases | volume = 195 | issue = 7 | pages = 1018–28 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17330793 | doi = 10.1086/511989 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Flu Spanyol 1918 adalah pandemi pertama dari dua pandemi yang disebabkan oleh virus influenza A H1N1, manakala pandemi kedua adalah [[pandemi flu babi 2009]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/conf/CRC/Grippe_CRC.ppt |title=La Grippe Espagnole de 1918 |format=Powerpoint |language=fr |publisher=[[Institut Pasteur]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117020243/http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/conf/CRC/Grippe_CRC.ppt |archive-date=17 November 2015 }} (also [https://www.powershow.com/view/2a8245-ODY3M/Grippe_espagnole_de_1918_consquences_dmographiques_long_terme_powerpoint_ppt_presentation# here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417064626/https://www.powershow.com/view/2a8245-ODY3M/Grippe_espagnole_de_1918_consquences_dmographiques_long_terme_powerpoint_ppt_presentation |date=2020-04-17 }}, requires Flash player)</ref>

Meskipun asal geografinya tidak diketahui, penyakit ini disebut flu Spanyol sejak gelombang pertama pandemi.<ref name="resurgence">{{Cite web |author=Dave Roos |date=3 March 2020 |url=https://www.history.com/news/spanish-flu-second-wave-resurgence |title=Why the Second Wave of the 1918 Spanish Flu Was So Deadly |publisher=[[History.com]] |accessdate=23 July 2020 |archive-date=2020-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730014432/https://www.history.com/news/spanish-flu-second-wave-resurgence |dead-url=no }}</ref>{{sfn|Porras-Gallo|Davis|2014|page=51}}{{sfn|Galvin|2007}} Spanyol tidak terlibat dalam Perang Dunia I dan tetap netral. Pada saat yang sama, [[penyensoran]] pada masa perang juga tidak diberlakukan di sana.<ref>{{cite news |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127100727/http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/world/spanish%20flu%20facts/111285 |archive-date=27 January 2010 |url=http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/world/spanish%20flu%20facts/111285 |website=Channel&nbsp;4 News |title=Spanish flu facts}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Anderson |first=Susan | name-list-style = vanc |title=Analysis of Spanish flu cases in 1918–1920 suggests transfusions might help in bird flu pandemic |url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-08/acop-aos082806.php |publisher=[[American College of Physicians]] |access-date=2 October 2011 |date=29 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125222223/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-08/acop-aos082806.php |archive-date=25 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Oleh karena itu, surat kabar [[kebebasan pers|bebas]] melaporkan dampak epidemi, seperti penyakit parah Raja [[Alfonso XIII dari Spanyol]] dan cerita yang tersebar luas ini seolah mengesankan bahwasanya Spanyol sangat terdampak oleh pandemi ini.{{sfn|Barry|2004|p=171}}

Istilah lain bagi virus ini di antaranya "pandemi influenza 1918", "pandemi flu 1918", atau variasi dari kedua istilah itu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/influenza/pandemic-influenza-an-evolving-challenge/en/|title=Pandemic influenza: an evolving challenge | date=22 May 2018|website=World Health Organization|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320220124/https://www.who.int/influenza/pandemic-influenza-an-evolving-challenge/en/|archive-date=20 March 2020|access-date=20 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/influenza-pandemic-of-1918-1919|title=Influenza pandemic of 1918–19 | date=4 March 2020|website=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320220920/https://www.britannica.com/event/influenza-pandemic-of-1918-1919|archive-date=20 March 2020|access-date=20 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Chodosh|first=Sara | name-list-style = vanc |url=https://www.popsci.com/story/health/coronavirus-1918-flu-pandemic/|title=What the 1918 flu pandemic can teach us about COVID-19, in four charts|date=18 March 2020|work=PopSci|access-date=20 March 2020|archive-date=2020-12-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224025632/https://www.popsci.com/story/health/coronavirus-1918-flu-pandemic/|dead-url=no}}</ref>

Pandemi ini pertama kali dimulai pada 4 Maret 1918 lewat kasus bernama Albert Gitchell, seorang juru masak tentara di [[Camp Funston]], [[Kansas]], United States, meskipun terdapat kemungkinan adanya kasus sebelum dirinya.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Spinney |first=Laura |title=Pale rider: the Spanish flu of 1918 and how it changed the world |date=2018 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-78470-240-3 |location= |oclc=1090305029 |page=36}}</ref> Penyakit ini telah diamati di [[Haskell, Kansas|Haskell]] pada Januari 1918 dan mendorong dokter setempat Loring Miner untuk memperingati jurnal akademik [[Dinas Kesehatan Masyarakat Amerika Serikat]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barry|first=John M|date=2004-01-20|title=The site of origin of the 1918 influenza pandemic and its public health implications|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=2|issue=1|page=3|doi=10.1186/1479-5876-2-3|issn=1479-5876|pmid=14733617|pmc=340389}}</ref> Dalam beberapa hari, 522 pria di kamp dilaporkan sakit.<ref>{{cite web|title=1918 Flu (Spanish flu epidemic)|url=http://www.avian-bird-flu.info/spanishfluepidemic1918.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080521071645/http://www.avian-bird-flu.info/spanishfluepidemic1918.html|archive-date=21 May 2008|website=Avian Bird Flu}}</ref> Pada 11 Maret 1918, virus telah mencapai [[Queens]], [[New York]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sheidlower|first=Noah|date=2020-03-17|title=How NYC Survived the 1918 Spanish Flu Pandemic|url=https://untappedcities.com/2020/03/17/how-nyc-survived-the-1918-spanish-flu-pandemic/|access-date=2020-10-08|website=Untapped New York|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929134901/https://untappedcities.com/2020/03/17/how-nyc-survived-the-1918-spanish-flu-pandemic/|dead-url=no}}</ref> Kegagalan mengambil tindakan pencegahan pada bulan Maret atau April kemudian mendapat kritik.{{sfn|Billings|1997}}

Karena Amerika Serikat bergabung dalam [[Perang Dunia I]], penyakit ini menyebar dengan sangat cepat dari Kamp Funston, tempat pelatihan utama bagi [[Pasukan Ekspedisi Amerika]], ke kamp-kamp [[Angkatan Darat Amerika Serikat]] lainnya dan Eropa, sehingga menjadi epidemi di kawasan [[Amerika Serikat Barat Tengah|Barat Tengah]], [[Pantai Timur Amerika Serikat|Pantai Timur]], dan pelabuhan di Prancis pada April 1918, serta mencapai [[Front Barat (Perang Dunia I)|Perang Dunia]] pada pertengahan April.<ref name=":3" /> Penyakit ini kemudian menyebar dengan sangat cepat ke wilayah Prancis lainnya, Britania Raya, Italia, dan Spanyol, serta mencapai [[Wrocław|Breslau]] dan [[Odessa]] pada bulan Mei. Setelah menandatangani [[Perjanjian Brest-Litovsk]] (Maret 1918), Jerman mulai membebaskan tawanan perang Rusia, yang kemudian membawa penyakit itu ke tanah airnya.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=2011|title=The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover: Years of Adventure, 1874–1920. (New York: Macmillan Company. 1951. pp. xi, 496.) and Herbert Hoover and the Russian Prisoners of World War I: A Study in Diplomacy and Relief, 1918–1919. By Edward F. Willis. (Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1951. pp. viii, 67.)|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=|pages=12|doi=10.1086/ahr/57.3.709|issn=1937-5239}}</ref> Penyakit ini mencapai Afrika Utara, India, dan Jepang pada bulan Mei, serta setelah itu kemungkinan besar menyebar ke seluruh dunia seperti kasus yang dilaporkan di Asia Tenggara pada bulan April.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Spinney |first=Laura |title=Pale rider: the Spanish flu of 1918 and how it changed the world |date=2018 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-78470-240-3 |location= |oclc=1090305029 |page=37}}</ref> Pada bulan Juni, wabah dilaporkan di Tiongkok.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1918-06-01 |title=Queer Epidemic Sweeps North China; Banks and Silk Stores in Peking Closed – Another Loan Sought from Japan. |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1918/06/01/archives/queer-epidemic-sweeps-north-china-banks-and-silk-stores-in-peking.html |access-date=2020-06-22 |issn=0362-4331 |df=mdy-all |archive-date=2020-06-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200624031144/https://www.nytimes.com/1918/06/01/archives/queer-epidemic-sweeps-north-china-banks-and-silk-stores-in-peking.html |dead-url=no }}</ref> Setelah mencapai Australia pada bulan Juli, gelombang pertama mulai melandai.

Gelombang pertama flu berlangsung dari triwulan pertama 1918 dan cenderung ringan.<ref name="BHM1991">{{cite journal |last1=Patterson |first1=K. David |last2=Pyle |first2=Gerald F. |title=The Geography and Mortality of the 1918 Influenza Pandemic |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bulletin-of-the-history-of-medicine_spring-1991_65_1/page/4 |journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine |date=1991 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=4–21 |pmid=2021692 |jstor=44447656 }}</ref> Tingkat kematian tidak terlalu jauh di atas biasanya;<ref name="NIH1918Influenza">{{cite journal |last1=Taubenberger |first1=Jeffery K. |last2=Morens |first2=David M. |title=1918 Influenza: the Mother of All Pandemics |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |date=2006 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=15–22 |doi=10.3201/eid1201.050979 |pmid=16494711 |pmc=3291398 }}</ref> sekira 75 ribu kematian yang berkaitan dengan flu dilaporkan pada enam bulan pertama tahun 1918 di Amerika Serikat, dibandingkan dengan sekira 63 ribu kematian selama tempo waktu yang sama pada 1915.<ref name="CDCMortality1918">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/vsushistorical/mortstatsh_1918.pdf |title=Mortality Statistics 1918: Nineteenth Annual Report |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |page=28 |date=1920 |accessdate=29 May 2020 |archive-date=2020-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711052046/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/vsushistorical/mortstatsh_1918.pdf |dead-url=no }}</ref> Kurang dari seribu orang meninggal karena influenza antara Mei dan Juni 1918 di Madrid, Spanyol.<ref name="NIHInfluenza2010">{{cite journal |last1=Erkoreka |first1=Anton |title=The Spanish influenza pandemic in occidental Europe (1918–1920) and victim age |journal=Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses |date=2010 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=81–89 |doi=10.1111/j.1750-2659.2009.00125.x |pmid=20167048 |pmc=5779284 }}</ref> Tiada karantina yang dilaporkan selama triwulan pertama 1918. Namun, gelombang pertama menyebabkan gangguan yang signifikan dalam operasi militer Perang Dunia I, dengan tiga perempat tentara Prancis, setengan pasukan Inggris, dan lebih dari 900,000 tentara Jerman menderita penyakit ini.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Spinney, Laura.|title=Pale rider : the Spanish flu of 1918 and how it changed the world|date=2018|publisher=Vintage|isbn=978-1-78470-240-3|location=|pages=38|oclc=1090305029}}</ref>

Gelombang kedua bermula pada pertengahan akhir Agustus, mungkin menyebar ke [[Boston]] dan [[Freetown]], [[Koloni dan Protektorat Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone]], dengan kapal dari [[Brest, Finistère|Brest]], tempat gelombang itu kemungkinan besar tiba dengan pasukan Amerika Serikat atau rekrutan Prancis bagi pelatihan angkatan laut.<ref name=":5" /> Dari [[Boston Navy Yard]] dan Camp Devens (kemudian berganti nama menjadi [[Fort Devens]]), sekitar 30 mil barat Boston, situs militer Amerika Serikat lainnya segera terdampak, begitu pula pasukan yang diangkut ke Eropa.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Byerly CR|date=April 2010|title=The U.S. military and the influenza pandemic of 1918–1919|journal=Public Health Reports|volume=125 Suppl 3|issue=|pages=82–91|doi=|pmc=2862337|pmid=20568570}}</ref> Pergerakan pasukan membuat penyakit ini menyebar selama dua bulan ke depan ke seluruh Amerika Utara, dan kemudian ke Amerika Tengah dan Amerika Selatan, juga mencapai Brasil dan Karibia lewat kapal..<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Spinney, Laura.|title=Pale rider : the Spanish flu of 1918 and how it changed the world|date=2018|publisher=Vintage|isbn=978-1-78470-240-3|location=|pages=39|oclc=1090305029}}</ref> Pada Juli 1918, penyakit ini menjangkiti beberapa tentara [[Kekaisaran Utsmaniyah]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Atatürk işgalcilerden önce İspanyol Gribini yenmişti|url=https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/yazarlar/sinan-meydan/ataturk-isgalcilerden-once-ispanyol-gribini-yenmisti-5767483/|access-date=2020-11-02|website=www.sozcu.com.tr|language=tr|archive-date=2020-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108004306/https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/yazarlar/sinan-meydan/ataturk-isgalcilerden-once-ispanyol-gribini-yenmisti-5767483/|dead-url=no}}</ref> Dari Freetown, pandemi terus menyebar melalui Afrika Barat di sepanjang pantai, sungai, dan rel kereta api kolonia, serta dari rel kereta api ke masyarakat yang lebih terpencil, sementara penyakit tersebut menyebar ke Afrika Selatan pada bulan September lewat kapal yang membawa kembali anggota [[Korps Buruh Pribumi Afrika Selatan]] yang kembali dari Prancis.<ref name=":6" /> Dari situ, penyakit ini menyebar ke seluruh bagian selatan Aftika dan di luar [[Zambezi]]. Penyakit ini mencapai [[Etiopia]] pada bulan November.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Spinney, Laura.|title=Pale rider : the Spanish flu of 1918 and how it changed the world|date=2018|publisher=Vintage|isbn=978-1-78470-240-3|location=|pages=40|oclc=1090305029}}</ref> On September 15, New York City saw its first fatality from influenza.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Barry|first=John M.|title=The Great Influenza|url=https://archive.org/details/greatinfluenzaep00barr|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2005|isbn=0670894737|location=United States|pages=[https://archive.org/details/greatinfluenzaep00barr/page/270 270]|quote=On September 15, New York City's first influenza death occurred.}}</ref> Pada 15 November, kematian pertama akibat influenza dilaporkan di [[Kota New York]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Barry|first=John M.|title=The Great Influenza|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2005|isbn=0670894737|location=United States|pages=270|quote=On September 15, New York City's first influenza death occurred.}}</ref> Philadelphia Liberty Loans Parade yang diselenggarakan pada 28 September 1918 untuk memperomosikan [[obligasi kebebasan|obligasi pemerintah]] bagi Perang Dunia I mengakibatkan 12 ribu kasus kematian setelah wabah penyakit besar menyebar di antara orang-orang yang menghampiri parade.<ref name="philadelphia">{{Cite news|first=Meagan|last=Flynn|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/03/12/pandemic-parade-flu-coronavirus/|title=What happens if parades aren't canceled during pandemics? Philadelphia found out in 1918, with disastrous results.|date=12 March 2020|work=Washington Post|accessdate=9 July 2020|archive-date=2020-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704064124/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/03/12/pandemic-parade-flu-coronavirus/|dead-url=no}}</ref>

* {{cite book|last=Barry|first=John M.|coauthors=|authorlink=|title=The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Greatest Plague in History|url=https://archive.org/details/greatinfluenzaep00john|edition=|publisher=Viking Penguin|location=|year=2004|isbn=0-670-89473-7|series=}}

* {{cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Niall|coauthors=Juergen Mueller|year=2002|title=Updating the accounts: global mortality of the 1918–1920 ‘Spanish’ influenza pandemic|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bulletin-of-the-history-of-medicine_spring-2002_76_1/page/105|journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine|issn=|volume=76|pages=105–15}}

* {{cite book|last=Little|first=Jean|coauthors=|authorlink=Jean Little|title=If I Die Before I Wake: The Flu Epidemic Diary of Fiona Macgregor, Toronto, Ontario, 1918|url=https://archive.org/details/ifidiebeforeiwak0000litt|edition=|publisher=Scholastic Canada|location=Markham, Ont.|year=2007|isbn=9780439988377|series=[[Dear Canada]]}}

* {{cite journal|last=Noymer|first=Andrew|coauthors=Michel Garenne|year=2000|title=The 1918 Influenza Epidemic's Effects on Sex Differentials in Mortality in the United States|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_population-and-development-review_2000-09_26_3/page/565|journal=Population and Development Review|issn=0098-7921|volume=26|issue=3|pages=565-581|doi=}}

* {{cite journal |author=Tumpey TM, García-Sastre A, Mikulasova A, ''et al'' |title=Existing antivirals are effective against influenza viruses with genes from the 1918 pandemic virus |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=99 |issue=21 |pages=13849-54 |year=2002 |pmid=12368467 |doi=10.1073/pnas.212519699 | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/99/21/13849 |access-date=2007-12-30 |archive-date=2008-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080502062330/http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/99/21/13849 |dead-url=no }}

* [http://www.scribemedia.org/2006/11/22/avian-flu/ Video from Expert Panel Discussion on Avian Flu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213060421/http://www.scribemedia.org/2006/11/22/avian-flu/ |date=2007-12-13 }}

* [http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/1918flu/index.html ''Nature'' "Web Focus" on 1918 flu, including new research] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713115050/http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/1918flu/index.html |date=2017-07-13 }}

* [http://www.stanford.edu/group/virus/uda/ Influenza Pandemic on stanford.edu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012023812/https://stanford.edu/group/virus/uda/ |date=2022-10-12 }}

* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/influenza/ Influenza 1918 in the United States on pbs.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091203114338/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/influenza/ |date=2009-12-03 }}

* [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_killerflu/index.html Secrets of the Dead: Killer Flu (PBS)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212142635/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_killerflu/index.html |date=2007-12-12 }}

* [http://www.upenn.edu/gazette/1198/lynch.html Flu by Eileen A. Lynch. The devastating effect of the Spanish flu in the city of Philadelphia, PA, USA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050304055539/http://www.upenn.edu/gazette/1198/lynch.html |date=2005-03-04 }}

* [http://www.ninthday.com/tauben.htm Dialog: An Interview with Dr. Jeffery Taubenberger on Reconstructing the Spanish Flu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525112536/https://www.ninthday.com/tauben.htm |date=2023-05-25 }}

* [http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/influenza-epidemic/ The Deadly Virus - The Influenza Epidemic of 1918] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230625132132/https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/influenza-epidemic/ |date=2023-06-25 }}, by the National Archives and Records Administration (see actual pictures and records of the time).

* [http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/1003 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic in New Zealand - includes recorded recollections of people who lived through it] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117175541/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/1003 |date=2012-01-17 }}

* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/06/health/06flu.html?ex=1286251200&en=3f9a510cfd4c3d45&ei=5090 Experts Unlock Clues to Spread of 1918 Flu Virus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026111831/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/06/health/06flu.html?ex=1286251200&en=3f9a510cfd4c3d45&ei=5090 |date=2013-10-26 }} - ''[[The New York Times]]''

* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/influenza/sfeature/latest.html PBS - recovery of flu samples from Alaskan flu victims] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304151802/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/influenza/sfeature/latest.html |date=2009-03-04 }}

* [http://www.medsci.org/v02p0087.htm An Avian Connection as a Catalyst to the 1918-1919 Influenza Pandemic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603185956/https://www.medsci.org/v02p0087.htm |date=2023-06-03 }}

* [http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF13/1386.html Alaska Science Forum - Permafrost Preserves Clues to Deadly 1918 Flu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419072040/http://www2.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF13/1386.html |date=2012-04-19 }}

* [http://www.vlib.us/medical/mja.htm Pathology of Influenza in France, 1920 Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614000323/http://www.vlib.us/medical/mja.htm |date=2006-06-14 }}

* [http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/node/694 "Deadly secret of 1918 flu virus unmasked"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228220419/http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/node/694 |date=2007-12-28 }}, ''Cosmos'' magazine, September 2006

* [http://www.startribune.com/blogs/oldnews/?p=41 Yesterday's News blog] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314054111/http://www.startribune.com/blogs/oldnews/?p=41 |date=2007-03-14 }}, 1918 newspaper account on impact of flu on Minneapolis

* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6271833.stm "Lethal secrets of 1918 flu virus"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530060953/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6271833.stm |date=2023-05-30 }} BBC News, January 2007

* [http://www.news.wisc.edu/13360.html "Study uncovers a lethal secret of 1918 influenza virus"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070122062720/http://www.news.wisc.edu/13360.html |date=2007-01-22 }} University of Wisconsin - Madison, January 17, 2007

* [http://www.translational-medicine.com/content/2/1/3 "The site of origin of the 1918 influenza pandemic and its public health implications"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081025094308/http://www.translational-medicine.com/content/2/1/3 |date=2008-10-25 }} Journal of Translational Medicine, January 20, 2004

[[Kategori:PandemikPandemi]]