Manusia: Perbedaan antara revisi

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[[Berkas:Two young girls at Camp Christmas Seals.jpg|jmpl|250px|ka|Dua anak perempuan manusia]]

 

Meskipun beberapa ilmuwan memperlakukan istilah manusia sama dengan semua anggota genus ''[[Homo]]'', dalam penggunaan umum, istilah ini biasanya merujuk pada ''Homo sapiens'', satu-satunya anggota ''Homo'' yang masih ada. [[Manusia modern anatomis|Manusia modern secara anatomis]] muncul sekitar 300.000 tahun yang lalu di Afrika, berevolusi dari ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]'' atau spesies yang serupa dan bermigrasi keluar dari Afrika, secara bertahap menggantikan atau melakukan kawin silang dengan populasi lokal [[manusia purba]]. Manusia merupakan [[pemburu-pengumpul]] yang hidup berpindah-pindah selama sebagian besar rentang sejarahnya. Manusia mulai menunjukkan perilaku modern sekitar 160.000-60.000 tahun yang lalu. [[Revolusi Neolitikum]], yang dimulai di Asia Barat Daya sekitar 13.000 tahun yang lalu (dan secara terpisah di beberapa tempat lain), melahirkan [[pertanian]] dan [[Pola pemukiman|pemukiman manusia]] yang permanen. Ketika populasi manusia menjadi lebih besar dan lebih padat, bentuk-bentuk pemerintahan berkembang di dalam dan di antara mereka, dan sejumlah [[peradaban]] telah bangkit dan runtuh. Manusia terus berkembang, dengan populasi global mencapai lebih dari 8 miliar hingga tahun 2022.

 

 

Manusia tergolong omnivora, mereka mampu mengonsumsi berbagai macam jenis tumbuhan dan binatang, dan telah [[Pengendalian api oleh manusia purba|menggunakan api]] dan bentuk panas lainnya untuk menyiapkan dan memasak makanan sejak zaman ''[[Homo erectus|H. erectus]]''. Manusia dapat bertahan hidup hingga delapan minggu tanpa makanan dan tiga atau empat hari tanpa air. Manusia pada umumnya aktif di siang hari, tidur rata-rata tujuh hingga sembilan jam per hari. Melahirkan bagi mereka adalah proses yang membahayakan, dengan risiko komplikasi dan kematian yang tinggi. Seringkali, baik ibu maupun ayah merawat anak-anak mereka, yang tidak berdaya saat dilahirkan, karena manusia adalah [[Altricial|spesies altricial]].

|2=''[[Pan paniscus]]''

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[[Berkas:Lucy_Skeleton.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Rekonstruksi terhadap [[Lucy (Australopithecus)|Lucy]]'','' kerangka ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' pertama yang ditemukan.]]

 

[[Asal-usul manusia modern dari Afrika|Migrasi "keluar dari Afrika"]] terjadi setidaknya dalam dua gelombang, gelombang pertama sekitar 130.000 hingga 100.000 tahun yang lalu, gelombang kedua (Penyebaran Selatan) sekitar 70.000 hingga 50.000 tahun yang lalu.<ref name="Posth">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=March 2016|title=Pleistocene Mitochondrial Genomes Suggest a Single Major Dispersal of Non-Africans and a Late Glacial Population Turnover in Europe|journal=[[Current Biology]]|volume=26|issue=6|pages=827–33|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.037|pmid=26853362|vauthors=Posth C, Renaud G, Mittnik A, Drucker DG, Rougier H, Cupillard C, Valentin F, Thevenet C, Furtwängler A, Wißing C, Francken M, Malina M, Bolus M, Lari M, Gigli E, Capecchi G, Crevecoeur I, Beauval C, Flas D, Germonpré M, van der Plicht J, Cottiaux R, Gély B, Ronchitelli A, Wehrberger K, Grigorescu D, Svoboda J, Semal P, Caramelli D, Bocherens H, Harvati K, Conard NJ, Haak W, Powell A, Krause J|hdl-access=free|s2cid=140098861|hdl=2440/114930}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=April 2015|title=A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture|journal=[[Genome Research]]|volume=25|issue=4|pages=459–66|doi=10.1101/gr.186684.114|pmc=4381518|pmid=25770088|vauthors=Karmin M, Saag L, Vicente M, Wilson Sayres MA, Järve M, Talas UG, Rootsi S, Ilumäe AM, Mägi R, Mitt M, Pagani L, Puurand T, Faltyskova Z, Clemente F, Cardona A, Metspalu E, Sahakyan H, Yunusbayev B, Hudjashov G, DeGiorgio M, Loogväli EL, Eichstaedt C, Eelmets M, Chaubey G, Tambets K, Litvinov S, Mormina M, Xue Y, Ayub Q, Zoraqi G, Korneliussen TS, Akhatova F, Lachance J, Tishkoff S, Momynaliev K, Ricaut FX, Kusuma P, Razafindrazaka H, Pierron D, Cox MP, Sultana GN, Willerslev R, Muller C, Westaway M, Lambert D, Skaro V, Kovačevic L, Turdikulova S, Dalimova D, Khusainova R, Trofimova N, Akhmetova V, Khidiyatova I, Lichman DV, Isakova J, Pocheshkhova E, Sabitov Z, Barashkov NA, Nymadawa P, Mihailov E, Seng JW, Evseeva I, Migliano AB, Abdullah S, Andriadze G, Primorac D, Atramentova L, Utevska O, Yepiskoposyan L, Marjanovic D, Kushniarevich A, Behar DM, Gilissen C, Vissers L, Veltman JA, Balanovska E, Derenko M, Malyarchuk B, Metspalu A, Fedorova S, Eriksson A, Manica A, Mendez FL, Karafet TM, Veeramah KR, Bradman N, Hammer MF, Osipova LP, Balanovsky O, Khusnutdinova EK, Johnsen K, Remm M, Thomas MG, Tyler-Smith C, Underhill PA, Willerslev E, Nielsen R, Metspalu M, Villems R, Kivisild T}}</ref> H. sapiens kemudian menjajah semua benua dan pulau-pulau besar, tiba di [[Eurasia]] 125.000 tahun yang lalu,<ref>{{cite journal|date=January 2011|title=The southern route "out of Africa": evidence for an early expansion of modern humans into Arabia|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/69197/title/Hints_of_earlier_human_exit_from_Africa|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=331|issue=6016|pages=453–6|bibcode=2011Sci...331..453A|doi=10.1126/science.1199113|pmid=21273486|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427201317/https://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/69197/title/Hints_of_earlier_human_exit_from_Africa|archive-date=27 April 2011|access-date=1 May 2011|vauthors=Armitage SJ, Jasim SA, Marks AE, Parker AG, Usik VI, Uerpmann HP|url-status=live|s2cid=20296624}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=27 January 2011|title=Humans 'left Africa much earlier'|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12300228|work=[[BBC News]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809051349/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12300228|archive-date=9 August 2012|vauthors=Rincon P}}</ref> Australia sekitar 65.000 tahun yang lalu,<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=July 2017|title=Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=547|issue=7663|pages=306–310|bibcode=2017Natur.547..306C|doi=10.1038/nature22968|pmid=28726833|vauthors=Clarkson C, Jacobs Z, Marwick B, Fullagar R, Wallis L, Smith M, Roberts RG, Hayes E, Lowe K, Carah X, Florin SA, McNeil J, Cox D, Arnold LJ, Hua Q, Huntley J, Brand HE, Manne T, Fairbairn A, Shulmeister J, Lyle L, Salinas M, Page M, Connell K, Park G, Norman K, Murphy T, Pardoe C|s2cid=205257212|hdl=2440/107043}}</ref> Amerika sekitar 15.000 tahun yang lalu, dan pulau-pulau terpencil seperti [[Hawaii]], [[Pulau Paskah]], [[Madagaskar]], dan [[Selandia Baru]] antara tahun 300 hingga 1280 M.<ref name="Lowe">{{cite web|year=2008|title=Polynesian settlement of New Zealand and the impacts of volcanism on early Maori society: an update|url=https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/10289/2690/1/Lowe%202008%20Polynesian%20settlement%20guidebook.pdf|publisher=[[University of Waikato]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522032853/https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/10289/2690/1/Lowe%202008%20Polynesian%20settlement%20guidebook.pdf|archive-date=22 May 2010|access-date=29 April 2010|vauthors=Lowe DJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=May 2012|title=Human migrations: Eastern odyssey|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=485|issue=7396|pages=24–6|bibcode=2012Natur.485...24A|doi=10.1038/485024a|pmid=22552074|vauthors=Appenzeller T|doi-access=free}}</ref>

{{Main|Sejarah manusia||}}

[[Berkas:Early_migrations_mercator.svg|jmpl|350x350px|Peta rangkuman penduduk dunia berdasarkan [[Migrasi manusia awal|migrasi awal manusia]] selama [[Paleolitikum Akhir|Paleolitik Akhir]], mengikuti paradigma Penyebaran Selatan]]

 

Sebuah revolusi perkotaan terjadi pada milenium ke-4 sebelum masehi dengan berkembangnya berbagai [[negara kota]], terutama kota-kota [[Sumeria]] yang terletak di [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Garfinkle SJ, Bang PF, Scheidel W|date=1 February 2013|url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188318.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195188318-e-4|title=Ancient Near Eastern City-States|website=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean|isbn=978-0-19-518831-8|veditors=Bang PF, Scheidel W|language=en|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188318.001.0001|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623152722/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188318.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195188318-e-4|archive-date=23 June 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> Di kota-kota inilah bentuk tulisan paling awal yang diketahui, aksara paku, muncul sekitar tahun 3000 SM.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Woods C|date=28 February 2020|title=A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-119-19329-6|veditors=Hasselbach-Andee R|edition=1st|pages=27–46|language=en|chapter=The Emergence of Cuneiform Writing|doi=10.1002/9781119193814.ch2|s2cid=216180781}}</ref> Peradaban besar lainnya yang berkembang pada masa ini adalah Mesir Kuno dan [[Peradaban Lembah Indus]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=October 2015|title=Ancient civilization: Cracking the Indus script|journal=Nature|volume=526|issue=7574|pages=499–501|bibcode=2015Natur.526..499R|doi=10.1038/526499a|pmid=26490603|vauthors=Robinson A|s2cid=4458743}}</ref> Bangsa-bangsa ini kemudian berdagang satu sama lain dan menciptakan teknologi seperti roda, bajak, dan layar.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Crawford H|year=2013|title=The Sumerian World|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-21911-5|pages=447–61|chapter=Trade in the Sumerian world|author-link=Harriet Crawford}}</ref><ref name=":142">{{cite journal|date=2018|title=Prehistoric innovations: Wheels and wheeled vehicles|url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=714342|journal=Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae|language=English|volume=69|issue=2|pages=271–298|doi=10.1556/072.2018.69.2.3|issn=0001-5210|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623152751/https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=714342|archive-date=23 June 2021|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Bodnár M|s2cid=115685157|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=1985|title=The Invention of the Plow|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/178600|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|volume=27|issue=4|pages=727–743|doi=10.1017/S0010417500011749|issn=0010-4175|jstor=178600|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409092618/https://www.jstor.org/stable/178600|archive-date=9 April 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Pryor FL|s2cid=144840498|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Carter2">{{cite book|vauthors=Carter R|year=2012|url=https://www.academia.edu/1576775|title=A companion to the archaeology of the ancient Near East|location=Chichester, West Sussex|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-8988-0|veditors=Potts DT|pages=347–354|chapter=19. [[Watercraft]]|access-date=8 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428190743/https://www.academia.edu/1576775/Watercraft|archive-date=28 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Astronomi dan matematika juga dikembangkan dan [[Piramida Agung Giza]] pun dibangun.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Pedersen O|year=1993|title=Early physics and astronomy: A historical introduction.|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-40340-5|page=1|chapter=Science Before the Greeks}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Robson E|year=2008|title=Mathematics in ancient Iraq: A social history.|publisher=Princeton University Press|pages=xxi}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=2003|title=Building the Great Pyramid: Probable Construction Methods Employed at Giza|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25148110|journal=Technology and Culture|volume=44|issue=2|pages=340–354|doi=10.1353/tech.2003.0063|issn=0040-165X|jstor=25148110|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306011135/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25148110|archive-date=6 March 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Edwards JF|s2cid=109998651|url-status=live}}</ref> Terdapat bukti adanya kekeringan parah yang berlangsung sekitar seratus tahun yang mungkin menyebabkan kemunduran peradaban-peradaban ini,<ref>{{cite journal|date=August 2018|title=New geological age comes under fire|journal=Science|volume=361|issue=6402|pages=537–538|bibcode=2018Sci...361..537V|doi=10.1126/science.361.6402.537|pmid=30093579|vauthors=Voosen P|s2cid=51954326}}</ref> dan peradaban-peradaban baru muncul setelahnya. Bangsa [[Babilonia]] mendominasi Mesopotamia,<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Saggs HW|year=2000|title=Babylonians|url=https://archive.org/details/babylonians0000sagg|publisher=Univ of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-20222-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/babylonians0000sagg/page/7 7]}}</ref> sementara yang lainnya seperti kebudayaan pra-historis di hilir lembah [[Mississippi|Mississipi]], [[peradaban Minoa]], dan [[Dinasti Shang]], memperoleh kejayaannya di daerah-daerah baru.<ref>{{cite journal|date=1 December 2005|title=Poverty Point as Structure, Event, Process|journal=Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory|language=en|volume=12|issue=4|pages=335–364|doi=10.1007/s10816-005-8460-4|issn=1573-7764|vauthors=Sassaman KE|s2cid=53393440}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=August 2017|title=Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans|journal=Nature|volume=548|issue=7666|pages=214–218|bibcode=2017Natur.548..214L|doi=10.1038/nature23310|pmc=5565772|pmid=28783727|vauthors=Lazaridis I, Mittnik A, Patterson N, Mallick S, Rohland N, Pfrengle S, Furtwängler A, Peltzer A, Posth C, Vasilakis A, McGeorge PJ, Konsolaki-Yannopoulou E, Korres G, Martlew H, Michalodimitrakis M, Özsait M, Özsait N, Papathanasiou A, Richards M, Roodenberg SA, Tzedakis Y, Arnott R, Fernandes DM, Hughey JR, Lotakis DM, Navas PA, Maniatis Y, Stamatoyannopoulos JA, Stewardson K, Stockhammer P, Pinhasi R, Reich D, Krause J, Stamatoyannopoulos G}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Keightley DN|year=1999|title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-47030-8|veditors=Loewe M, Shaughnessy EL|pages=232–291|chapter=The Shang: China's first historical dynasty}}</ref> Zaman Perunggu tiba-tiba [[Keruntuhan Zaman Perunggu Akhir|runtuh]] sekitar tahun 1200 SM, mengakibatkan hilangnya sejumlah peradaban dan dimulainya [[Zaman Kegelapan Yunani]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=2015|title=Drought and societal collapse 3200 years ago in the Eastern Mediterranean: a review|journal=WIREs Climate Change|volume=6|issue=4|pages=369–382|doi=10.1002/wcc.345|vauthors=Kaniewski D, Guiot J, van Campo E|s2cid=128460316}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=1 June 2012|title=The influence of climatic change on the Late Bronze Age Collapse and the Greek Dark Ages|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=39|issue=6|pages=1862–1870|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2012.01.029|vauthors=Drake BL}}</ref> Selama periode ini, besi mulai menggantikan perunggu, yang mengarah ke [[Zaman Besi]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Wells PS|date=2011|title=European Prehistory: A Survey|url=https://archive.org/details/europeanprehisto0000unse_q5z8_2ed|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4419-6633-9|veditors=Milisauskas S|series=Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology|pages=[https://archive.org/details/europeanprehisto0000unse_q5z8_2ed/page/405 405]–460|language=en|chapter=The Iron Age|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-6633-9_11}}</ref>

Setelah [[Keruntuhan Kekaisaran Romawi Barat|runtuhnya Kekaisaran Romawi Barat]] pada tahun 476, Eropa memasuki [[Abad Pertengahan]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=2018|title=Climate and the Decline and Fall of the Western Roman Empire: A Bibliometric View on an Interdisciplinary Approach to Answer a Most Classic Historical Question|journal=Climate|language=en|volume=6|issue=4|page=90|bibcode=2018Clim....6...90M|doi=10.3390/cli6040090|vauthors=Marx W, Haunschild R, Bornmann L|doi-access=free}}</ref> Selama periode ini, agama [[Kekristenan|Kristen]] dan [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Gereja]] menyajikan otoritas dan pendidikan yang terpusat.<ref name="Oxford University Press">{{cite book|date=2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6HPW1TodZwC&pg=PA71|title=Science and Religion Around the World|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-532819-6|veditors=Brooke JH, Numbers RL|page=72|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510130517/https://books.google.com/books?id=W6HPW1TodZwC&pg=PA71|archive-date=10 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Di Timur Tengah, [[Islam]] menjadi agama yang menonjol dan meluas ke Afrika Utara yang menginspirasi arsitektur-arsitektur uniknya tersendiri dan pembentukan cara hidup yang berbeda.<ref name=":15">{{cite book|vauthors=Renima A, Tiliouine H, Estes RJ|date=2016|title=The State of Social Progress of Islamic Societies: Social, Economic, Political, and Ideological Challenges|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-24774-8|veditors=Tiliouine H, Estes RJ|series=International Handbooks of Quality-of-Life|pages=25–52|language=en|chapter=The Islamic Golden Age: A Story of the Triumph of the Islamic Civilization|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-24774-8_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Vidal-Nanquet P|year=1987|title=The Harper Atlas of World History|publisher=Harper & Row Publishers|page=76}}</ref> [[Dunia Kristiani|Dunia Kristen]] dan [[Dunia Islam|Islam]] pada akhirnya berbenturan, dengan [[Kerajaan Inggris]], [[Kerajaan Prancis]], dan [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]] mendeklarasikan serangkaian perang suci untuk merebut kembali kendali atas [[Tanah Suci]] mereka yang telah dirampas oleh pihak [[Muslim]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Asbridge T|year=2012|title=The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-84983-770-5|chapter=Introduction: The world of the crusades}}</ref> Di Amerika, [[kebudayaan Mississippi]] yang kompleks muncul sekitar tahun 800 Masehi,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-707|author=Adam King|title=Mississippian Period: Overview|encyclopedia=New Georgia Encyclopedia|date=2002|access-date=15 November 2009|archive-date=19 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090819042104/http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-707|url-status=dead}}</ref> sementara lebih jauh ke selatan, suku [[Aztek]] dan [[Kerajaan Inka|Inka]] menjadi kekuatan yang dominan.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Conrad G, Demarest AA|year=1984|title=Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism|url=https://archive.org/details/religionempiredy0000conr|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-31896-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/religionempiredy0000conr/page/2 2]}}</ref> [[Kekaisaran Mongol]] akan menaklukkan sebagian besar Eurasia pada abad ke-13 dan ke-14.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=May T|year=2013|title=The Mongol Conquests in World History|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-971-2|page=7}}</ref> Selama periode waktu yang sama, [[Kekaisaran Mali]] di Afrika tumbuh menjadi kekaisaran terbesar di benua tersebut, membentang dari [[Senegambia]] hingga [[Pantai Gading]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|vauthors=Canós-Donnay S|title=The Empire of Mali|date=25 February 2019|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-266|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.266|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4|access-date=7 May 2021|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020034919/https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-266|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Oseania]] menyaksikan kebangkitan [[Imperium Tuʻi Tonga|Kekaisaran Tuʻi Tonga]] yang meluas ke banyak pulau di [[Pasifik Selatan]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Tongan Maritime Expansion: A Case in the Evolutionary Ecology of Social Complexity|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46734826|journal=Asian Perspectives|volume=37|issue=2|pages=135–164|vauthors=Canela SA, Graves MW}}</ref>

 

 

[[Periode modern akhir]] (1800-sekarang) menyaksikan [[Revolusi Teknologi]] dan [[Revolusi Industri|Industri]] membawa berbagai penemuan seperti teknologi fotografi, inovasi besar dalam pengembangan transportasi dan [[pengembangan energi|energi]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century|url=https://www.greatachievements.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406160644/https://greatachievements.org/|archive-date=6 April 2015|access-date=7 April 2015| work = National Academy of Engineering }}</ref> [[Amerika Serikat]] mengalami perubahan besar, dari [[Tiga Belas Koloni|sekelompok kecil koloni]] menjadi salah satu [[Negara adikuasa|negara adidaya global]].<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Herring GC|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/299054528|title=From colony to superpower : U.S. foreign relations since 1776|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-972343-0|location=New York|page=1|oclc=299054528|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032849/https://www.worldcat.org/title/from-colony-to-superpower-us-foreign-relations-since-1776/oclc/299054528|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Perang Napoleon]] berkecamuk di Eropa pada awal 1800-an,<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=O'Rourke KH|date=March 2006|title=The worldwide economic impact of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1793–1815|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1740022806000076/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Global History|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=123–149|doi=10.1017/S1740022806000076|issn=1740-0228|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032852/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-global-history/article/abs/worldwide-economic-impact-of-the-french-revolutionary-and-napoleonic-wars-17931815/B5D21C47E53307E78358803D4695FCE8|url-status=live}}</ref> Spanyol kehilangan sebagian besar koloninya di [[Dunia Baru]],<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Zimmerman AF|date=November 1931|title=Spain and Its Colonies, 1808–1820|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2506251|journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review|volume=11|issue=4|pages=439–463|doi=10.2307/2506251|jstor=2506251|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=6 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306014948/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2506251|url-status=live}}</ref> sementara Eropa melanjutkan [[Perebutan Afrika|ekspansi ke Afrika]]—ketika kontrol Eropa meningkat dari 10% menjadi hampir 90% dalam waktu kurang dari 50 tahun<ref>{{cite web |date=2011 |title=British History in depth: Slavery and the 'Scramble for Africa' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/abolition/scramble_for_africa_article_01.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324121231/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/abolition/scramble_for_africa_article_01.shtml |archive-date=24 March 2022 |access-date=5 May 2021 |website=[[BBC]] |language=en-GB |vauthors=David S}}</ref>—dan Oseania.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Raudzens G |date=2004 |title=The Australian Frontier Wars, 1788–1838 (review) |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jmh.2004.0138 |journal=The Journal of Military History |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=957–959 |doi=10.1353/jmh.2004.0138 |issn=1543-7795 |s2cid=162259092}}</ref> [[Keseimbangan kekuasaan (hubungan internasional)|Keseimbangan kekuatan]] yang renggang di antara negara-negara Eropa runtuh pada tahun 1914 dengan pecahnya [[Perang Dunia I|Perang Dunia Pertama]], yang merupakan salah satu konflik paling mematikan dalam sejarah.<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Clark CM|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/794136314|title=The sleepwalkers : how Europe went to war in 1914|date=2012|publisher=Allen Lane|isbn=978-0-7139-9942-6|location=London|chapter=Polarization of Europe, 1887–1907|oclc=794136314|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032849/https://www.worldcat.org/title/sleepwalkers-how-europe-went-to-war-in-1914/oclc/794136314|url-status=live}}</ref> Pada tahun 1930-an, [[Depresi Besar|krisis ekonomi di seluruh dunia]] menyebabkan munculnya rezim [[Otoritarianisme|otoriter]] dan [[Perang Dunia II|Perang Dunia Kedua]], yang melibatkan [[Daftar negara yang terlibat dalam Perang Dunia II|hampir semua negara di dunia]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Robert Dahl |title=Democracy and Its Critics |url=https://archive.org/details/democracyitscrit00dahl_0 |url-access=registration |year=1989 |publisher=Yale UP |pages=[https://archive.org/details/democracyitscrit00dahl_0/page/239 239–40] |isbn=0-300-15355-4}}</ref> Setelah berakhir pada tahun 1945, [[Perang Dingin]] antara [[Uni Soviet]] dan Amerika Serikat menjadi ajang perebutan pengaruh global, termasuk [[perlombaan senjata nuklir]] dan [[Perlombaan Antariksa|kompetisi antariksa]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = McDougall WA |date=May 1985|title=Sputnik, the space race, and the Cold War|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00963402.1985.11455962|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=41|issue=5|pages=20–25|doi=10.1080/00963402.1985.11455962|bibcode=1985BuAtS..41e..20M|issn=0096-3402}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Plous S|date=May 1993|title=The Nuclear Arms Race: Prisoner's Dilemma or Perceptual Dilemma?|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022343393030002004|journal=Journal of Peace Research|language=en|volume=30|issue=2|pages=163–179|doi=10.1177/0022343393030002004|s2cid=5482851|issn=0022-3433|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=21 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221155825/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022343393030002004|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Era Informasi]] saat ini membuat dunia menjadi semakin ter[[globalisasi]] dan saling terhubung.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Sachs JD|date=April 2017|title=Globalization—In the Name of Which Freedom?|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s41463-017-0019-5|journal=Humanistic Management Journal|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=237–252|doi=10.1007/s41463-017-0019-5|s2cid=133030709|issn=2366-603X|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032849/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41463-017-0019-5|url-status=live}}</ref>

 

== Habitat dan populasi ==

Pemukiman manusia awal bergantung pada kedekatan jaraknya dengan [[Sumber daya air|air]] dan—tergantung pada gaya hidup—juga [[sumber daya alam]] lain yang diperlukan untuk [[subsistensi|bertahan hidup]], seperti populasi [[perburuan|hewan buruan]] dan [[lahan subur]] untuk bercocok tanam dan menggembalakan ternak.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Rector RK|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/953735302|title=The Early River Valley Civilizations|date=2016|isbn=978-1-4994-6329-3|edition=First|location=New York, NY|page=10|oclc=953735302|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032849/https://www.worldcat.org/title/early-river-valley-civilizations/oclc/953735302|url-status=live}}</ref> Namun, manusia modern memiliki kapasitas yang besar untuk mengubah [[habitat]] mereka melalui teknologi, [[irigasi]], [[perencanaan kota]], konstruksi, [[penggundulan hutan]] dan [[penggurunan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.westerville.k12.oh.us/userfiles/4188/Classes/7526/humanforcesthatchangeenvironment.pdf?id=448117 |title=How People Modify the Environment |author=<!--Not stated--> |publisher=[[Westerville City School District]] |access-date=13 March 2019 |archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225132108/http://www.westerville.k12.oh.us/userfiles/4188/Classes/7526/humanforcesthatchangeenvironment.pdf?id=448117 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Pemukiman manusia]] senantiasa rentan terhadap [[bencana alam]], terutama yang berada di lokasi rawan dan dengan kualitas konstruksi yang rendah.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLACREGTOPHAZMAN/Resources/EN_Breve_Oct03_32_Nat_Dis_EN.pdf |title=Natural disasters and the urban poor |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |date=Oktober 2003 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809063303/https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLACREGTOPHAZMAN/Resources/EN_Breve_Oct03_32_Nat_Dis_EN.pdf |archive-date=9 Agustus 2017 }}</ref> Pengelompokan dan perubahan habitat yang disengaja sering kali dilakukan dengan tujuan untuk memberikan perlindungan, meningkatkan kenyamanan atau kekayaan materi, memperbanyak jumlah makanan yang tersedia, menambah [[estetika]], memperluas ilmu pengetahuan, atau mendorong pertukaran sumber daya.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Habitat UN|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/889953315|title=The state of the world's cities 2012 / prosperity of cities.|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-01559-6|location=[London]|pages=x|oclc=889953315|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032849/https://www.worldcat.org/title/state-of-the-worlds-cities-2012-prosperity-of-cities/oclc/889953315|url-status=live}}</ref>

 

 

Dalam satu abad terakhir, manusia telah menjelajahi berbagai lingkungan yang menantang seperti Antartika, [[laut dalam]], dan [[luar angkasa]].<ref name=":11">{{cite journal |vauthors=Heim BE |year=1990–1991 |title=Exploring the Last Frontiers for Mineral Resources: A Comparison of International Law Regarding the Deep Seabed, Outer Space, and Antarctica |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/vantl23&id=831&div=&collection= |journal=[[Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law]] |volume=23 |page=819 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=23 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623152719/https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals%2Fvantl23&id=831&div=&collection= |url-status=live}}</ref> Tempat tinggal manusia di lingkungan yang tidak bersahabat ini sangat terbatas dan berbiaya mahal, umumnya terbatas dalam jangka waktu tertentu, dan terbatas untuk ekspedisi [[ilmu|ilmiah]], [[militer]], atau [[industri]].<ref name=":11" /> Manusia telah mengunjungi [[Penjelajahan Bulan|Bulan]] secara singkat, dan telah menunjukkan kehadirannya di beberapa [[Objek astronomi|benda langit]] lainnya melalui [[Wahana antariksa nirawak|pesawat ruang angkasa robotik]] buatan mereka.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/mars-science-laboratory-curiosity-rover-msl/ |title=Mission to Mars: Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity Rover |publisher=Jet Propulsion Laboratory |access-date=26 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818014850/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/mars-science-laboratory-curiosity-rover-msl |archive-date=18 August 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Rosetta/Touchdown!_Rosetta_s_Philae_probe_lands_on_comet |title=Touchdown! Rosetta's Philae probe lands on comet |date=12 November 2014 |publisher=European Space Agency |access-date=26 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150822055902/https://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Rosetta/Touchdown!_Rosetta_s_Philae_probe_lands_on_comet |archive-date=22 August 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/missions/near/ |title=NEAR-Shoemaker |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=26 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150826173835/https://science.nasa.gov/missions/near/ |archive-date=26 August 2015 }}</ref> Sejak awal abad ke-20, telah terdapat kehadiran manusia secara kontinyu di Antartika melalui stasiun penelitian dan, sejak tahun 2000, di luar angkasa melalui habitasi di [[Stasiun Luar Angkasa Internasional]].<ref name="urlNASA">{{cite web |vauthors=Kraft R |title=JSC celebrates ten years of continuous human presence aboard the International Space Station |url=https://www.jsc.nasa.gov/jscfeatures/articles/000000945.html |publisher=[[Johnson Space Center]] |work=JSC Features |date=11 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216221409/https://www.jsc.nasa.gov/jscfeatures/articles/000000945.html |archive-date=16 February 2012 |access-date=13 February 2012 }}</ref>

Sama seperti simpanse, manusia memiliki ekor [[Vestigialitas|vestigial]], [[Umbai cacing|usus buntu]], sendi bahu yang fleksibel, jari-jari yang menggenggam, dan [[ibu jari|jempol tangan yang berlawanan]].<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Marks JM |title=Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History|date=2001|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-0-202-36656-2|page=16|language=en}}</ref> Terlepas dari bipedalisme dan ukuran otak, manusia memiliki perbedaan dengan simpanse dalam hal [[penciuman]], [[pendengaran]], dan [[pencernaan]] protein.<ref name="O'Neil" /> Meskipun manusia memiliki kepadatan [[folikel rambut]] yang sebanding dengan kera lainnya, sebagian besar merupakan [[Rambut vellus|rambut halus]], yang sebagian besar sangat pendek dan tipis sehingga hampir tidak terlihat.<ref>{{cite news|date=2017|title=How to be Human: The reason we are so scarily hairy|work=New Scientist|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23631460-700-why-are-humans-so-hairy/|access-date=29 April 2020|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225235006/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23631460-700-why-are-humans-so-hairy/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sandel AA | title = Brief communication: Hair density and body mass in mammals and the evolution of human hairlessness | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 152 | issue = 1 | pages = 145–50 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 23900811 | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.22333 | hdl-access = free | hdl = 2027.42/99654 }}</ref> Manusia memiliki sekitar 2 juta [[kelenjar keringat]] yang tersebar di seluruh tubuhnya, lebih banyak dari simpanse yang kelenjar keringatnya lebih sedikit dan sebagian besar terletak di telapak tangan dan telapak kaki.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Kirchweger G |title=The Biology of Skin Color: Black and White|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/07/3/text_pop/l_073_04.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216070146/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/07/3/text_pop/l_073_04.html|archive-date=16 February 2013|access-date=6 January 2013|date=2 February 2001|work=Evolution: Library|publisher=PBS}}</ref>

 

 

Manusia memiliki lemparan yang jauh lebih cepat dan lebih akurat daripada hewan lainnya.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Lombardo MP, Deaner RO |date=March 2018|title=Born to Throw: The Ecological Causes that Shaped the Evolution of Throwing In Humans |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology|language=en|volume=93|issue=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.1086/696721|s2cid=90757192|issn=0033-5770}}</ref> Manusia juga merupakan pelari jarak jauh terbaik di dunia hewan, tetapi lebih lambat dalam jarak pendek.<ref name="O'Neil">{{cite web | vauthors = O'Neil D |title=Humans |url=https://anthro.palomar.edu/primate/prim_8.htm |work=Primates |publisher=Palomar College |access-date=6 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111004211/https://anthro.palomar.edu/primate/prim_8.htm |archive-date=11 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/27/health/27well.html |work=The New York Times |title=The Human Body Is Built for Distance | vauthors = Parker-Pope T |author-link1=Tara Parker-Pope |date=27 October 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105211812/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/27/health/27well.html |archive-date=5 November 2015 }}</ref> Rambut tubuh manusia yang lebih tipis dan kelenjar keringat yang lebih produktif membantu menghindari kelelahan akibat panas saat berlari jarak jauh.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = John B |title=What is the role of sweating glands in balancing body temperature when running a marathon? |url=https://www.livestrong.com/article/514545-what-is-the-role-of-sweat-glands-in-balancing-body-temperature-when-running-a-marathon/ |publisher=Livestrong.com |access-date=6 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131184339/https://www.livestrong.com/article/514545-what-is-the-role-of-sweat-glands-in-balancing-body-temperature-when-running-a-marathon/ |archive-date=31 January 2013 }}</ref>

{{See also|Kelahiran anak|Harapan hidup|}}

[[Berkas:Tubal_Pregnancy_with_embryo.jpg|jmpl|[[Embrio]] manusia berusia 5 minggu berukuran 10 mm]]

 

 

Baik ibu maupun ayah manusia sama-sama mengasuh anak mereka, berbeda dengan primata lain yang sebagian besar pengasuhannya dilakukan oleh ibu.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Laland KN, Brown G|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2KcbFVBSxWYC|title=Sense and Nonsense: Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Behaviour|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-958696-7|page=7|language=en|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803081451/https://books.google.com/books?id=2KcbFVBSxWYC|url-status=live}}</ref> Manusia terlahir dalam keadaan tidak berdaya, yang kemudian terus tumbuh selama beberapa tahun, dan mencapai [[kematangan seksual]] umumnya pada usia 15 hingga 17 tahun.<ref name="Kail">{{cite book|vauthors=Kail RV, Cavanaugh JC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E-n5E7oyCgoC&pg=PA296|title=Human Development: A Lifespan View|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-495-60037-4|edition=5th|page=296|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112190914/https://books.google.com/books?id=E-n5E7oyCgoC&pg=PA296|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Schuiling">{{cite book|vauthors=Schuiling KD, Likis FE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QTDFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22|title=Women's Gynecologic Health|publisher=[[Jones & Bartlett Learning]]|year=2016|isbn=978-1-284-12501-6|page=22|quote=The changes that occur during puberty usually happen in an ordered sequence, beginning with thelarche (breast development) at around age 10 or 11, followed by adrenarche (growth of pubic hair due to androgen stimulation), peak height velocity, and finally menarche (the onset of menses), which usually occurs around age 12 or 13.|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=14 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220514171746/https://books.google.com/books?id=QTDFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Phillips">{{cite book|vauthors=Phillips DC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=84StBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|title=Encyclopedia of Educational Theory and Philosophy|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4833-6475-9|pages=18–19|quote=On average, the onset of puberty is about 18 months earlier for girls (usually starting around the age of 10 or 11 and lasting until they are 15 to 17) than for boys (who usually begin puberty at about the age of 11 to 12 and complete it by the age of 16 to 17, on average).|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=25 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425145917/https://books.google.com/books?id=84StBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|url-status=live}}</ref> Rentang hidup manusia telah dibagi menjadi beberapa tahap mulai dari tiga hingga dua belas tahun. Tahapan yang umum meliputi [[masa bayi]], [[masa kanak-kanak]], [[masa remaja]], [[masa dewasa]] dan [[masa tua]].<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Mintz S |date=1993|title=Life stages|journal=Encyclopedia of American Social History|volume=3|pages=7–33}}</ref> Panjangnya tahapan ini bervariasi di berbagai budaya dan periode waktu, tetapi ditandai dengan lonjakan pertumbuhan yang luar biasa cepat selama masa remaja.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Soliman A, De Sanctis V, Elalaily R, Bedair S | title = Advances in pubertal growth and factors influencing it: Can we increase pubertal growth? | journal = Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 18 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S53-62 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25538878 | pmc = 4266869 | doi = 10.4103/2230-8210.145075 }}</ref> Perempuan manusia mengalami [[menopause]] dan menjadi [[Kemandulan|tidak lagi subur]] pada sekitar usia 50 tahun.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Walker ML, Herndon JG | title = Menopause in nonhuman primates? | journal = Biology of Reproduction | volume = 79 | issue = 3 | pages = 398–406 | date = September 2008 | pmid = 18495681 | pmc = 2553520 | doi = 10.1095/biolreprod.108.068536 }}</ref> Terdapat hipotesis yang menyatakan bahwa menopause meningkatkan keberhasilan reproduksi wanita secara keseluruhan dengan memungkinkannya menginvestasikan lebih banyak waktu dan sumber daya untuk keturunannya, dan pada gilirannya anak-anak dari keturunannya ([[hipotesis nenek]]), dibandingkan dengan terus melahirkan anak hingga usia tua.<ref name="Diamond1997">{{cite book | vauthors = Diamond J |author-link=Jared Diamond |title=Why is Sex Fun? The Evolution of Human Sexuality |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York City |year=1997 |pages=167–70 |isbn=978-0-465-03127-6}}</ref><ref name="Peccei2001">{{cite journal | vauthors = Peccei JS |title= Menopause: Adaptation or epiphenomenon? |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=10 |issue=2 |year=2001 |pages=43–57 |doi=10.1002/evan.1013|s2cid=1665503 }}</ref>

Manusia pada umumnya adalah makhluk [[Diurnalitas|diurnal]]. Kebutuhan tidur mereka rata-rata adalah antara tujuh hingga sembilan jam per hari untuk usia dewasa, dan sembilan hingga sepuluh jam per hari untuk anak-anak; orang lanjut usia biasanya tidur selama enam hingga tujuh jam. Namun, waktu tidur yang kurang dari angka tersebut merupakan hal yang cukup umum terjadi di antara manusia, meskipun [[Kurang tidur|kurangnya tidur]] dapat berdampak negatif pada kesehatan. Orang dewasa yang membatasi waktu tidurnya hingga empat jam per hari telah menunjukkan korelasi dengan perubahan fisiologi dan kondisi mental, termasuk berkurangnya daya ingat, kelelahan, agresi, dan ketidaknyamanan tubuh.<ref name="Grandner2010">{{cite journal|date=August 2010|title=Problems associated with short sleep: bridging the gap between laboratory and epidemiological studies|journal=Sleep Medicine Reviews|volume=14|issue=4|pages=239–47|doi=10.1016/j.smrv.2009.08.001|pmc=2888649|pmid=19896872|vauthors=Grandner MA, Patel NP, Gehrman PR, Perlis ML, Pack AI}}</ref>

 

 

=== Kesadaran dan pikiran ===

 

Proses memperoleh pengetahuan dan pemahaman melalui pemikiran, pengalaman, dan indera disebut sebagai kognisi.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cognition|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/cognition|website=Lexico|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] and [[Dictionary.com]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708041349/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/cognition|archive-date=8 July 2016|access-date=6 May 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref> Otak manusia memahami dunia luar melalui indera, dan masing-masing orang sangat dipengaruhi oleh pengalamannya, yang mengarah pada pandangan subjektif tentang keberadaan dan berlalunya waktu.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Glattfelder JB|date=2019|title=Information—Consciousness—Reality: How a New Understanding of the Universe Can Help Answer Age-Old Questions of Existence|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-03633-1|veditors=Glattfelder JB|series=The Frontiers Collection|pages=515–595|language=en|chapter=The Consciousness of Reality|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-03633-1_14|s2cid=189379814}}</ref> Sifat dasar dari pemikiran adalah hal yang sentral dalam bidang psikologi dan yang terkait dengannya. Psikologi kognitif mempelajari kognisi, yakni proses mental yang melandasi perilaku.<ref>{{cite web|title=American Psychological Association (2013). Glossary of psychological terms|url=https://www.apa.org/research/action/glossary.aspx|publisher=Apa.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708064652/http://www.apa.org/research/action/glossary.aspx|archive-date=8 July 2014|access-date=13 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Dengan fokus utama pada perkembangan pikiran manusia sepanjang rentang kehidupan, psikologi developmental berusaha untuk memahami bagaimana manusia memandang, memahami, dan bertindak di dunia dan bagaimana proses-proses ini berubah seiring bertambahnya usia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Developmental Psychology Studies Human Development Across the Lifespan|url=https://www.apa.org/action/science/developmental/index.aspx|website=www.apa.org|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709054242/https://www.apa.org/action/science/developmental/index.aspx|archive-date=9 July 2014|access-date=28 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Burman E|year=2017|title=Deconstructing Developmental Psychology|location=New York, NY|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-138-84695-1}}</ref> Hal ini dapat berfokus pada perkembangan intelektual, kognitif, saraf, sosial, atau moral. Para psikolog telah mengembangkan tes kecerdasan dan konsep angka kecerdasan (IQ) untuk menilai kecerdasan relatif manusia dan mempelajari sebarannya di dalam masyarakat.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1 January 2004|title=Intelligence Assessment|journal=Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology|language=en|pages=307–314|doi=10.1016/B0-12-657410-3/00510-9|isbn=978-0-12-657410-4|vauthors=Colom R}}</ref>

Motivasi manusia hingga saat ini belum sepenuhnya dipahami. Dari perspektif psikologis, [[hierarki kebutuhan Maslow]] adalah sebuah teori terkemuka yang dapat didefinisikan sebagai proses pemuasan kebutuhan tertentu dengan urutan kompleksitas yang menanjak.<ref>{{cite web|date=20 March 2020|title=Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs|url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html|website=Simplypsychology.org|publisher=Simply Scholar Limited|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108083314/https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html|archive-date=8 November 2018|access-date=4 April 2020|quote=Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up.|vauthors=McLeod S|url-status=live}}</ref> Dari perspektif filosofis yang lebih umum, motivasi manusia dapat didefinisikan sebagai komitmen terhadap, atau penarikan diri dari, berbagai tujuan yang membutuhkan penggunaan kecakapan manusia. [[Insentif]] dan [[preferensi]] juga merupakan faktor, begitu pula keterkaitan antara keduanya. [[Kemauan]] juga dapat terlibat, dalam hal ini kemauan juga merupakan faktor. Idealnya, baik motivasi maupun kemauan memastikan pemilihan, perjuangan, dan realisasi tujuan dengan cara yang optimal, yang mana [[Fungsi (biologi)|fungsi]] ini dimulai sejak masa kanak-kanak dan terus berlanjut sepanjang hidup dalam sebuah proses yang dikenal sebagai [[sosialisasi]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Heckhausen J, Heckhausen H|date=28 March 2018|title=Motivation and Action|location=Introduction and Overview|publisher=Springer, Cham|isbn=978-3-319-65093-7|page=1|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_1}}</ref>

 

 

Pengalaman emosional yang dianggap menyenangkan, seperti kegembiraan, ketertarikan, atau kepuasan, bertentangan dengan pengalaman emosional yang dianggap tidak menyenangkan, seperti kecemasan, kesedihan, kemarahan, dan keputusasaan.<ref>{{cite journal|date=March 2001|title=The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|journal=The American Psychologist|volume=56|issue=3|pages=218–26|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218|pmc=3122271|pmid=11315248|vauthors=Fredrickson BL}}</ref> Kebahagiaan, atau keadaan bahagia, adalah kondisi emosional manusia. Definisi kebahagiaan masuk ke dalam topik filosofis yang umum. Beberapa orang mendefinisikannya sebagai pengalaman perasaan emosi positif, sambil menghindari emosi negatif.<ref>{{cite journal|date=August 2013|title=The proper pursuit of happiness.|journal=Res Philosophica|volume=90|issue=3|pages=387–411|doi=10.11612/resphil.2013.90.3.5|vauthors=Haybron DM}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=13 April 2014|title=Happiness and Its Discontents|url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/04/13/happiness-and-its-discontents/|work=The Opinion Pages|publisher=The New York Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012094415/https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/04/13/happiness-and-its-discontents/|archive-date=12 October 2018|access-date=30 July 2022|quote=I would suggest that when we talk about happiness, we are actually referring, much of the time, to a complex emotional phenomenon. Call it emotional well-being. Happiness as emotional well-being concerns your emotions and moods, more broadly your emotional condition as a whole. To be happy is to inhabit a favorable emotional state.... On this view, we can think of happiness, loosely, as the opposite of anxiety and depression. Being in good spirits, quick to laugh and slow to anger, at peace and untroubled, confident and comfortable in your own skin, engaged, energetic and full of life.|vauthors=Haybron DM|url-status=live}}</ref> Yang lain melihatnya sebagai penilaian kepuasan hidup atau kualitas hidup.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Graham MC|date=2014|title=Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment|publisher=Outskirts Press|isbn=978-1-4787-2259-5|pages=6–10}}</ref> Penelitian terbaru menunjukkan bahwa menjadi bahagia mungkin melibatkan pengalaman beberapa emosi negatif ketika manusia merasa bahwa mereka layak mendapatkan sesuatu hal.<ref>{{cite web|date=14 August 2017|title=Secret to happiness may include more unpleasant emotions: Research contradicts idea that people should always seek pleasure to be happy|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/08/170814092813.htm|website=ScienceDaily|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]]|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111181025/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/08/170814092813.htm|archive-date=11 November 2020|access-date=25 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Seksualitas dan rasa sayang ===

[[Berkas:Sweet_Baby_Kisses_Family_Love.jpg|jmpl|Kasih sayang keluarga dapat terlihat pada orang tua kepada anak-anak mereka.]]

 

 

Cinta umumnya mengacu pada perasaan ketertarikan yang kuat atau keterikatan emosional. Cinta dapat bersifat impersonal (cinta terhadap suatu objek, cita-cita, atau hubungan politik atau spiritual yang kuat) atau interpersonal (cinta antar manusia).<ref name="Fromm, Erich 2000">{{cite book|vauthors=Fromm E|date=2000|title=The art of loving|location=New York|publisher=Harper Perennial|isbn=978-0-06-095828-2}}</ref> Saat jatuh cinta, [[dopamin]], [[Noradrenalin|norepinefrin]], [[serotonin]], dan zat kimia lainnya merangsang pusat kesenangan otak, yang menyebabkan efek samping seperti peningkatan [[detak jantung]], kehilangan [[nafsu makan]] dan [[tidur]], dan [[Euforia|perasaan bahagia yang intens]].<ref>{{cite web|date=14 February 2017|title=Love, Actually: The science behind lust, attraction, and companionship|url=https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2017/love-actually-science-behind-lust-attraction-companionship/|website=Science in the News|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028090542/http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2017/love-actually-science-behind-lust-attraction-companionship/|archive-date=28 October 2020|access-date=25 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

 

{{Infobox|title=Statistik masyarakat|label1=Bahasa yang paling banyak digunakan<!--PLEASE LIMIT TO TOP TEN--><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/ethnologue200|title=What are the top 200 most spoken languages?|work=[[Ethnologue: Languages of the World]]|date=2020|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=12 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112222210/http://www.ethnologue.org/ethno_docs/distribution.asp?by=size|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=CIAWorldFactbook>{{cite report|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|title=World|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=15 November 2021|date=|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032610/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|url-status=live}}</ref>|data1=[[Bahasa Inggris|Inggris]], [[Bahasa mandarin|Mandarin]], [[Bahasa Hindi|Hindi]], [[Bahasa spanyol|Spanyol]], [[Bahasa arab|Arab]], [[bahasa bengali|Bengali]], [[French language|Prancis]], [[Russian language|Rusia]], [[Portuguese language|Portugis]], [[Urdu]]<!--PLEASE LIMIT TO TOP TEN-->|label2=Agama yang paling banyak dianut<ref name=CIAWorldFactbook /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|date=5 April 2017|publisher=Pew Research Center|title=The Changing Global Religious Landscape|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=18 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218030628/https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|url-status=live}}</ref>|data2=[[Kekristenan]], [[Islam]], [[Hindu]], [[Buddhisme]], [[agama rakyat]], [[Sikhisme]], [[Judaisme]], [[Tidak beragama]]}}

Kemampuan intelektual manusia yang sangat tinggi merupakan faktor kunci dalam kemajuan teknologi dan dominasi spesies ini terhadap biosfer.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Ord T|date=2020|title=The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity|location=New York|publisher=Hachette Books|isbn=978-0-316-48489-3|quote=Homo sapiens and our close relatives may have some unique physical attributes, such as our dextrous hands, upright walking and resonant voices. However, these on their own cannot explain our success. They went together with our intelligence...}}</ref> Terlepas dari spesies hominid lain yang telah punah, manusia adalah satu-satunya hewan yang diketahui dapat mengajarkan informasi yang dapat digeneralisasikan,<ref>{{cite news|date=2012|title=Pay attention… time for lessons at animal school|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20121005-pay-attention-its-animal-school|work=bbc.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130120957/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20121005-pay-attention-its-animal-school|archive-date=30 January 2021|access-date=22 April 2020|vauthors=Goldman JG|url-status=live}}</ref> dengan menggunakan penyematan rekursif untuk menghasilkan dan mengomunikasikan beragam konsep yang rumit,<ref>{{cite journal|date=November 2018|title=Infant cognition includes the potentially human-unique ability to encode embedding|journal=Science Advances|volume=4|issue=11|pages=eaar8334|bibcode=2018SciA....4.8334W|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aar8334|pmc=6248967|pmid=30474053|vauthors=Winkler M, Mueller JL, Friederici AD, Männel C|doi-access=free}}</ref> menggunakan fisika sederhana yang diperlukan untuk merancang alat yang kompeten,<ref>{{cite journal|date=July 2003|title=What's so special about human tool use?|journal=Neuron|volume=39|issue=2|pages=201–4|doi=10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00424-0|pmid=12873378|vauthors=Johnson-Frey SH|s2cid=18437970}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Tool use and physical cognition in birds and mammals|journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology|volume=19|issue=1|pages=27–33|doi=10.1016/j.conb.2009.02.003|pmid=19328675|quote=In short, the evidence to date that animals have an understanding of folk physics is at best mixed.|vauthors=Emery NJ, Clayton NS|s2cid=18277620}}</ref> atau memasak makanan di alam liar.<ref>{{cite news|date=3 June 2015|title=Chimps Can't Cook, But Maybe They'd Like To|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/06/150602-chimp-cooking-evolution-human-brain-science/|work=National Geographic News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131064840/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/06/150602-chimp-cooking-evolution-human-brain-science/|archive-date=31 January 2021|access-date=22 April 2020|vauthors=Lemonick MD|url-status=live}}</ref> Proses belajar mengajar berperan dalam melestarikan identitas budaya dan etnografi dalam komunitas manusia.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2 June 2015|title=The Role and Importance of the Study of Economic Subjects in the Implementation of the Educational Potential of Education|journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences|series=The Proceedings of 6th World Conference on educational Sciences|language=en|volume=191|pages=2565–2567|doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.690|issn=1877-0428|vauthors=Vakhitova T, Gadelshina L}}</ref> Karakteristik dan perilaku lain yang umumnya unik pada manusia antara lain menyalakan api,<ref>{{cite news|date=9 October 2018|title=The Book of Humans by Adam Rutherford review – a pithy homage to our species|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/oct/09/the-book-of-humans-adam-rutherford-review|work=The Guardian|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205084949/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/oct/09/the-book-of-humans-adam-rutherford-review|archive-date=5 February 2021|access-date=22 April 2020|vauthors=McKie R|url-status=live}}</ref> menyusun [[fonem]],<ref>{{cite news|date=29 June 2015|title=Babblers speak to the origin of language|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/animal-magic/2015/jun/29/babblers-birds-origin-evolution-language|work=The Guardian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131120059/https://www.theguardian.com/science/animal-magic/2015/jun/29/babblers-birds-origin-evolution-language|archive-date=31 January 2021|access-date=22 April 2020|vauthors=Nicholls H|url-status=live}}</ref> dan pembelajaran vokal.<ref>{{cite news|date=2015|title=Can any animals talk and use language like humans?|url=https://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150216-can-any-animals-talk-like-humans|work=bbc.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200502172910/http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150216-can-any-animals-talk-like-humans|archive-date=2 May 2020|access-date=22 April 2020|quote=Most animals are not vocal learners.|vauthors=Dasgupta S|url-status=live}}</ref>

Meskipun [[komunikasi]] dilakukan oleh banyak spesies, [[bahasa]] merupakan hal yang khusus ada pada manusia, sebuah ciri khas kemanusiaan, dan kultur yang universal.<ref>{{cite web|date=18 September 2013|title=Why is language unique to humans?|url=https://royalsociety.org/news/2013/language-unique-humans/|publisher=Royal Society|language=en-gb|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118210915/https://royalsociety.org/news/2013/language-unique-humans/|archive-date=18 January 2021|access-date=24 October 2020|vauthors=Scott-Phillips TC, Blythe RA|url-status=live}}</ref> Tidak seperti sistem terbatas pada hewan lain, bahasa manusia bersifat terbuka, jumlah makna yang tak terhingga dapat dihasilkan dengan menggabungkan sejumlah simbol yang terbatas.<ref>{{cite journal|date=July 2017|title=Q&A: What is human language, when did it evolve and why should we care?|journal=BMC Biology|volume=15|issue=1|page=64|doi=10.1186/s12915-017-0405-3|pmc=5525259|pmid=28738867|vauthors=Pagel M}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=4 December 2010|title=Language evolution: How to hear words long silenced|journal=New Scientist|language=en|volume=208|issue=2789|pages=ii–iii|bibcode=2010NewSc.208D...2F|doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(10)62961-2|issn=0262-4079|vauthors=Fitch WT}}</ref> Bahasa manusia juga memiliki kapasitas perpindahan, menggunakan kata-kata untuk mewakili hal-hal dan kejadian yang tidak terjadi secara lokal atau saat ini, tetapi berada dalam imajinasi bersama dengan lawan bicaranya.<ref name="Revolution2" />

 

 

== Catatan ==