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[[Berkas:Two young girls at Camp Christmas Seals.jpg|jmpl|250px|ka|Dua anak perempuan manusia]]
'''Manusia (''Homo sapiens'')''' atau '''insan''' adalah [[spesies]] [[primata]] yang jumlahnya paling banyak dan tersebar luas. Mereka adalah jenis [[Hominidae|kera besar]] yang dicirikan oleh gaya berjalan dua kaki dan kemampuan [[Kognisi|kognitif]] yang mumpuni berkat [[otak]] mereka yang besar dan kompleks. Manusia adalah makhluk yang sangat sosial dan cenderung hidup dalam [[struktur sosial]] yang kompleks yang terdiri dari banyak kelompok yang saling bekerja sama dan bersaing, mulai dari keluarga dan jaringan kekerabatan hingga negara politik. Oleh karenanya, interaksi sosial antara manusia telah membentuk berbagai macam nilai, [[norma sosial]], [[bahasa]], dan [[ritual]], yang masing-masing menopang komunitas manusia. Keinginan untuk memahami dan mempengaruhi [[fenomena]] telah memotivasi manusia untuk mengembangkan [[Ilmu|ilmu pengetahuan]], [[teknologi]], [[filsafat]], [[hukum]], [[mitologi]], [[agama]], dan bidang studi lainnya.
 
Meskipun beberapa ilmuwan memperlakukan istilah manusia sama dengan semua anggota genus ''[[Homo]]'', dalam penggunaan umum, istilah ini biasanya merujuk pada ''Homo sapiens'', satu-satunya anggota ''Homo'' yang masih ada. [[Manusia modern anatomis|Manusia modern secara anatomis]] muncul sekitar 300.000 tahun yang lalu di Afrika, berevolusi dari ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]'' atau spesies yang serupa dan bermigrasi keluar dari Afrika, secara bertahap menggantikan atau melakukan kawin silang dengan populasi lokal [[manusia purba]]. Manusia merupakan [[pemburu-pengumpul]] yang hidup berpindah-pindah selama sebagian besar rentang sejarahnya. Manusia mulai menunjukkan perilaku modern sekitar 160.000-60.000 tahun yang lalu. [[Revolusi Neolitikum]], yang dimulai di Asia Barat Daya sekitar 13.000 tahun yang lalu (dan secara terpisah di beberapa tempat lain), melahirkan [[pertanian]] dan [[Pola pemukiman|pemukiman manusia]] yang permanen. Ketika populasi manusia menjadi lebih besar dan lebih padat, bentuk-bentuk pemerintahan berkembang di dalam dan di antara mereka, dan sejumlah [[peradaban]] telah bangkit dan runtuh. Manusia terus berkembang, dengan populasi global mencapai lebih dari 8 miliar hingga tahun 2022.
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}}|style1=font-size:80%; line-height:80%|label1=[[Hominoidea]] (hominoid, kera besar)}}
[[Berkas:Lucy_Skeleton.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Rekonstruksi terhadap [[Lucy (Australopithecus)|Lucy]]'','' kerangka ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' pertama yang ditemukan.]]
Genus ''Homo'' berevolusi dari ''[[Australopithecus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|date=September 2010|title=The Evolutionary History of the Australopiths|url=https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-010-0249-6|journal=Evolution: Education and Outreach|language=en|volume=3|issue=3|pages=341–352|doi=10.1007/s12052-010-0249-6|issn=1936-6434|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531204050/https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-010-0249-6|archive-date=31 May 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Strait DS|s2cid=31979188|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=September 2010|title=Origin of the Genus Homo|url=https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-010-0247-8|journal=Evolution: Education and Outreach|language=en|volume=3|issue=3|pages=353–366|doi=10.1007/s12052-010-0247-8|issn=1936-6434|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523050858/https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-010-0247-8|archive-date=23 May 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Dunsworth HM|s2cid=43116946|url-status=live}}</ref> Meskipun [[Fosil|fosil-fosil]] dari masa transisi ini langka, anggota ''Homo'' yang paling awal memiliki beberapa ciri-ciri utama yang sama dengan ''Australopithecus''.<ref>{{cite journal|date=July 2016|title=From Australopithecus to Homo: the transition that wasn't|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=371|issue=1698|page=20150248|doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0248|pmc=4920303|pmid=27298460|vauthors=Kimbel WH, Villmoare B|s2cid=20267830}}</ref><ref name="Villmoare2015">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=March 2015|title=Paleoanthropology. Early Homo at 2.8 Ma from Ledi-Geraru, Afar, Ethiopia|journal=[[Science (journaljurnal)|Science]]|volume=347|issue=6228|pages=1352–1355|bibcode=2015Sci...347.1352V|doi=10.1126/science.aaa1343|pmid=25739410|vauthors=Villmoare B, Kimbel WH, Seyoum C, Campisano CJ, DiMaggio EN, Rowan J, Braun DR, Arrowsmith JR, Reed KE|doi-access=free}}</ref> Catatan paling awal dari ''Homo'' adalah spesimen berusia 2,8 juta tahun, LD 350-1 dari Ethiopia, dan spesies yang paling awal adalah ''[[Homo habilis]]'' dan ''[[Homo rudolfensis]]'' yang berevolusi 2,3 juta tahun yang lalu.<ref name="Villmoare2015" /> ''[[Homo erectus|H. erectus]]'' (varian Afrika kadang-kadang disebut ''[[Homo ergaster|H. ergaster]]'') berevolusi 2 juta tahun yang lalu dan merupakan spesies [[manusia purba]] pertama yang meninggalkan Afrika dan menyebar ke seluruh Eurasia.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=July 2018|title=Hominin occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau since about 2.1 million years ago|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=559|issue=7715|pages=608–612|bibcode=2018Natur.559..608Z|doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0299-4|pmid=29995848|vauthors=Zhu Z, Dennell R, Huang W, Wu Y, Qiu S, Yang S, Rao Z, Hou Y, Xie J, Han J, Ouyang T|s2cid=49670311}}</ref> ''H. erectus'' juga merupakan yang pertama kali mengembangkan bentuk tubuh yang khas sebagaimana manusia. ''Homo sapiens'' muncul di Afrika sekitar 300.000 tahun yang lalu berevolusi dari spesies yang umumnya dikenali sebagai ''[[Homo heidelbergensis|H. heidelbergensis]]'' atau ''[[Homo rhodesiensis|H. rhodesiensis]]'', yakni keturunan ''H. erectus'' yang masih ada di Afrika.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=June 2017|title=New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan-African origin of Homo sapiens|url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/62267/1/Submission_288356_1_art_file_2637492_j96j1b.pdf|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=546|issue=7657|pages=289–292|bibcode=2017Natur.546..289H|doi=10.1038/nature22336|pmid=28593953|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108234003/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/62267/1/Submission_288356_1_art_file_2637492_j96j1b.pdf|archive-date=8 January 2020|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Hublin JJ, Ben-Ncer A, Bailey SE, Freidline SE, Neubauer S, Skinner MM, Bergmann I, Le Cabec A, Benazzi S, Harvati K, Gunz P|url-status=live}}</ref> ''H. sapiens'' bermigrasi keluar dari benua tersebut, secara bertahap menggantikan atau kawin silang dengan populasi manusia purba setempat.<ref>{{cite journal|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=13 May 2005|title=Out of Africa Revisited|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|type=This Week in ''Science''|volume=308|issue=5724|page=921|doi=10.1126/science.308.5724.921g|issn=0036-8075|s2cid=220100436}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author-link=Chris Stringer|date=June 2003|title=Human evolution: Out of Ethiopia|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=423|issue=6941|pages=692–3, 695|bibcode=2003Natur.423..692S|doi=10.1038/423692a|pmid=12802315|vauthors=Stringer C|s2cid=26693109}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author-link=Donald Johanson|date=May 2001|title=Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of Africa?|url=https://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html|website=[[actionbioscience]]|publisher=[[American Institute of Biological Sciences]]|location=Washington, DC|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617010349/http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html|archive-date=17 June 2021|access-date=23 November 2009|vauthors=Johanson D|url-status=dead}}</ref> Manusia mulai menunjukkan [[Modernitas perilaku|perilaku modern]] sekitar 160.000-70.000 tahun yang lalu,<ref name="Marean et al 2007">{{cite journal|last1=Marean|first1=Curtis|display-authors=etal|date=2007|title=Early human use of marine resources and pigment in South Africa during the Middle Pleistocene|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/15550/files/PAL_E2962.pdf|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=449|issue=7164|pages=905–908|bibcode=2007Natur.449..905M|doi=10.1038/nature06204|pmid=17943129|s2cid=4387442}}</ref> dan mungkin lebih awal.<ref name="Brooks">{{Cite journal|year=2018|title=Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=360|issue=6384|pages=90–94|bibcode=2018Sci...360...90B|doi=10.1126/science.aao2646|pmid=29545508|vauthors=Brooks AS, Yellen JE, Potts R, Behrensmeyer AK, Deino AL, Leslie DE, Ambrose SH, Ferguson JR, d'Errico F, Zipkin AM, Whittaker S, Post J, Veatch EG, Foecke K, Clark JB|doi-access=free}}</ref>
 
[[Asal-usul manusia modern dari Afrika|Migrasi "keluar dari Afrika"]] terjadi setidaknya dalam dua gelombang, gelombang pertama sekitar 130.000 hingga 100.000 tahun yang lalu, gelombang kedua (Penyebaran Selatan) sekitar 70.000 hingga 50.000 tahun yang lalu.<ref name="Posth">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=March 2016|title=Pleistocene Mitochondrial Genomes Suggest a Single Major Dispersal of Non-Africans and a Late Glacial Population Turnover in Europe|journal=[[Current Biology]]|volume=26|issue=6|pages=827–33|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.037|pmid=26853362|vauthors=Posth C, Renaud G, Mittnik A, Drucker DG, Rougier H, Cupillard C, Valentin F, Thevenet C, Furtwängler A, Wißing C, Francken M, Malina M, Bolus M, Lari M, Gigli E, Capecchi G, Crevecoeur I, Beauval C, Flas D, Germonpré M, van der Plicht J, Cottiaux R, Gély B, Ronchitelli A, Wehrberger K, Grigorescu D, Svoboda J, Semal P, Caramelli D, Bocherens H, Harvati K, Conard NJ, Haak W, Powell A, Krause J|hdl-access=free|s2cid=140098861|hdl=2440/114930}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=April 2015|title=A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture|journal=[[Genome Research]]|volume=25|issue=4|pages=459–66|doi=10.1101/gr.186684.114|pmc=4381518|pmid=25770088|vauthors=Karmin M, Saag L, Vicente M, Wilson Sayres MA, Järve M, Talas UG, Rootsi S, Ilumäe AM, Mägi R, Mitt M, Pagani L, Puurand T, Faltyskova Z, Clemente F, Cardona A, Metspalu E, Sahakyan H, Yunusbayev B, Hudjashov G, DeGiorgio M, Loogväli EL, Eichstaedt C, Eelmets M, Chaubey G, Tambets K, Litvinov S, Mormina M, Xue Y, Ayub Q, Zoraqi G, Korneliussen TS, Akhatova F, Lachance J, Tishkoff S, Momynaliev K, Ricaut FX, Kusuma P, Razafindrazaka H, Pierron D, Cox MP, Sultana GN, Willerslev R, Muller C, Westaway M, Lambert D, Skaro V, Kovačevic L, Turdikulova S, Dalimova D, Khusainova R, Trofimova N, Akhmetova V, Khidiyatova I, Lichman DV, Isakova J, Pocheshkhova E, Sabitov Z, Barashkov NA, Nymadawa P, Mihailov E, Seng JW, Evseeva I, Migliano AB, Abdullah S, Andriadze G, Primorac D, Atramentova L, Utevska O, Yepiskoposyan L, Marjanovic D, Kushniarevich A, Behar DM, Gilissen C, Vissers L, Veltman JA, Balanovska E, Derenko M, Malyarchuk B, Metspalu A, Fedorova S, Eriksson A, Manica A, Mendez FL, Karafet TM, Veeramah KR, Bradman N, Hammer MF, Osipova LP, Balanovsky O, Khusnutdinova EK, Johnsen K, Remm M, Thomas MG, Tyler-Smith C, Underhill PA, Willerslev E, Nielsen R, Metspalu M, Villems R, Kivisild T}}</ref> H. sapiens kemudian menjajah semua benua dan pulau-pulau besar, tiba di [[Eurasia]] 125.000 tahun yang lalu,<ref>{{cite journal|date=January 2011|title=The southern route "out of Africa": evidence for an early expansion of modern humans into Arabia|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/69197/title/Hints_of_earlier_human_exit_from_Africa|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=331|issue=6016|pages=453–6|bibcode=2011Sci...331..453A|doi=10.1126/science.1199113|pmid=21273486|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427201317/https://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/69197/title/Hints_of_earlier_human_exit_from_Africa|archive-date=27 April 2011|access-date=1 May 2011|vauthors=Armitage SJ, Jasim SA, Marks AE, Parker AG, Usik VI, Uerpmann HP|url-status=live|s2cid=20296624}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=27 January 2011|title=Humans 'left Africa much earlier'|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12300228|work=[[BBC News]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809051349/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12300228|archive-date=9 August 2012|vauthors=Rincon P}}</ref> Australia sekitar 65.000 tahun yang lalu,<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=July 2017|title=Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=547|issue=7663|pages=306–310|bibcode=2017Natur.547..306C|doi=10.1038/nature22968|pmid=28726833|vauthors=Clarkson C, Jacobs Z, Marwick B, Fullagar R, Wallis L, Smith M, Roberts RG, Hayes E, Lowe K, Carah X, Florin SA, McNeil J, Cox D, Arnold LJ, Hua Q, Huntley J, Brand HE, Manne T, Fairbairn A, Shulmeister J, Lyle L, Salinas M, Page M, Connell K, Park G, Norman K, Murphy T, Pardoe C|s2cid=205257212|hdl=2440/107043}}</ref> Amerika sekitar 15.000 tahun yang lalu, dan pulau-pulau terpencil seperti [[Hawaii]], [[Pulau Paskah]], [[Madagaskar]], dan [[Selandia Baru]] antara tahun 300 hingga 1280 M.<ref name="Lowe">{{cite web|year=2008|title=Polynesian settlement of New Zealand and the impacts of volcanism on early Maori society: an update|url=https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/10289/2690/1/Lowe%202008%20Polynesian%20settlement%20guidebook.pdf|publisher=[[University of Waikato]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522032853/https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/10289/2690/1/Lowe%202008%20Polynesian%20settlement%20guidebook.pdf|archive-date=22 May 2010|access-date=29 April 2010|vauthors=Lowe DJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=May 2012|title=Human migrations: Eastern odyssey|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=485|issue=7396|pages=24–6|bibcode=2012Natur.485...24A|doi=10.1038/485024a|pmid=22552074|vauthors=Appenzeller T|doi-access=free}}</ref>
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{{Main|Sejarah manusia||}}
[[Berkas:Early_migrations_mercator.svg|jmpl|350x350px|Peta rangkuman penduduk dunia berdasarkan [[Migrasi manusia awal|migrasi awal manusia]] selama [[Paleolitikum Akhir|Paleolitik Akhir]], mengikuti paradigma Penyebaran Selatan]]
Hingga sekitar 12.000 tahun yang lalu, semua manusia hidup sebagai [[pemburu-pengumpul]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Little|first1=Michael A.|last2=Blumler|first2=Mark A.|year=2015|title=Basics in Human Evolution|place=Boston|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-802652-6|editor-last=Muehlenbein|editor-first=Michael P.|pages=323–335|language=en|chapter=Hunter-Gatherers|access-date=30 July 2022|chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128026526000232|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703085714/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128026526000232|archive-date=3 July 2022|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Scarre|first=Chris|year=2018|title=The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies|location=London|publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]]|isbn=978-0-500-29335-5|editor-last=Scarre|editor-first=Chris|edition=4th|pages=174–197|chapter=The world transformed: from foragers and farmers to states and empires|author-link=Chris Scarre}}</ref> [[Revolusi Neolitikum]] (penemuan [[pertanian]]) pertama kali terjadi di [[Asia Barat Daya]] dan menyebar ke sebagian besar [[Dunia Lama]] selama ribuan tahun berikutnya.<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Colledge S, Conolly J, Dobney K, Manning K, Shennan S|date=2013|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/855969933|title=Origins and Spread of Domestic Animals in Southwest Asia and Europe.|location=Walnut Creek|publisher=Left Coast Press|isbn=978-1-61132-324-5|pages=13–17|oclc=855969933|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032846/https://www.worldcat.org/title/origins-and-spread-of-domestic-animals-in-southwest-asia-and-europe/oclc/855969933|archive-date=30 July 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Revolusi ini juga terjadi secara independen di Mesoamerika (sekitar 6.000 tahun yang lalu),<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Scanes CG|date=January 2018|title=Animals and Human Society|isbn=978-0-12-805247-1|veditors=Scanes CG, Toukhsati SR|pages=103–131|chapter=The Neolithic Revolution, Animal Domestication, and Early Forms of Animal Agriculture|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-805247-1.00006-X}}</ref> [[Tiongkok]],<ref name="He2017">{{cite journal|date=7 June 2017|title=Prehistoric evolution of the dualistic structure mixed rice and millet farming in China|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317400332|journal=The Holocene|volume=27|issue=12|pages=1885–1898|bibcode=2017Holoc..27.1885H|doi=10.1177/0959683617708455|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120221221/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317400332_Prehistoric_evolution_of_the_dualistic_structure_mixed_rice_and_millet_farming_in_China|archive-date=20 November 2021|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=He K, Lu H, Zhang J, Wang C, Huan X|s2cid=133660098|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Lu">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=May 2009|title=Earliest domestication of common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in East Asia extended to 10,000 years ago|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=106|issue=18|pages=7367–72|bibcode=2009PNAS..106.7367L|doi=10.1073/pnas.0900158106|pmc=2678631|pmid=19383791|vauthors=Lu H, Zhang J, Liu KB, Wu N, Li Y, Zhou K, Ye M, Zhang T, Zhang H, Yang X, Shen L, Xu D, Li Q|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Papua Nugini]],<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=July 2003|title=Origins of agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the highlands of New Guinea|journal=Science|volume=301|issue=5630|pages=189–93|doi=10.1126/science.1085255|pmid=12817084|vauthors=Denham TP, Haberle SG, Lentfer C, Fullagar R, Field J, Therin M, Porch N, Winsborough B|s2cid=10644185}}</ref> dan wilayah [[Sahel]] dan [[Sabana SudaniaSudan|Sabana Barat]] di Afrika.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=May 2019|title=Yam genomics supports West Africa as a major cradle of crop domestication|journal=Science Advances|volume=5|issue=5|pages=eaaw1947|bibcode=2019SciA....5.1947S|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaw1947|pmc=6527260|pmid=31114806|vauthors=Scarcelli N, Cubry P, Akakpo R, Thuillet AC, Obidiegwu J, Baco MN, Otoo E, Sonké B, Dansi A, Djedatin G, Mariac C, Couderc M, Causse S, Alix K, Chaïr H, François O, Vigouroux Y|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=October 2017|title=Evidence for Sorghum Domestication in Fourth Millennium BC Eastern Sudan: Spikelet Morphology from Ceramic Impressions of the Butana Group|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1574602/7/Fuller_693898.pdf|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=58|issue=5|pages=673–683|doi=10.1086/693898|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623152728/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1574602/7/Fuller_693898.pdf|archive-date=23 June 2021|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Winchell F|s2cid=149402650|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=February 2011|title=4500-Year old domesticated pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) from the Tilemsi Valley, Mali: new insights into an alternative cereal domestication pathway|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=38|issue=2|pages=312–322|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2010.09.007|vauthors=Manning K}}</ref> Akses terhadap surplus makanan menyebabkan terbentuknya [[pemukiman manusia]] yang permanen, [[domestikasi]] hewan, dan [[Zaman Tembaga|penggunaan peralatan logam]] untuk pertama kalinya dalam sejarah. Pertanian dan gaya hidup menetap menyebabkan munculnya [[peradaban]] awal.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Noble TF, Strauss B, Osheim D, Neuschel K, Accamp E|date=2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Td4WAAAAQBAJ&q=western%20civilisation%20egypt&pg=PA16|title=Cengage Advantage Books: Western Civilization: Beyond Boundaries|isbn=978-1-285-66153-7|access-date=11 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214010433/https://books.google.com/books?id=Td4WAAAAQBAJ&q=western%20civilisation%20egypt&pg=PA16|archive-date=14 December 2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Spielvogel J|date=1 January 2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LceiAgAAQBAJ&q=western%20civilisation%20egypt&pg=PT65|title=Western Civilization: Volume A: To 1500|publisher=Cenpage Learning|isbn=978-1-285-98299-1|access-date=11 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905105225/https://books.google.com/books?id=LceiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT65#v=onepage&q=western%20civilisation%20egypt|archive-date=5 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Thornton B|year=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fa6swJv64xkC&q=Greek%20Ways%3A%20How%20the%20Greeks%20Created%20Western%20Civilization|title=Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization|location=San Francisco, CA|publisher=Encounter Books|isbn=978-1-893554-57-3|pages=1–14|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222224422/https://books.google.com/books?id=fa6swJv64xkC&q=Greek|archive-date=22 February 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
Sebuah revolusi perkotaan terjadi pada milenium ke-4 sebelum masehi dengan berkembangnya berbagai [[negara kota]], terutama kota-kota [[Sumeria]] yang terletak di [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Garfinkle SJ, Bang PF, Scheidel W|date=1 February 2013|url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188318.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195188318-e-4|title=Ancient Near Eastern City-States|website=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean|isbn=978-0-19-518831-8|veditors=Bang PF, Scheidel W|language=en|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188318.001.0001|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623152722/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188318.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195188318-e-4|archive-date=23 June 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> Di kota-kota inilah bentuk tulisan paling awal yang diketahui, aksara paku, muncul sekitar tahun 3000 SM.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Woods C|date=28 February 2020|title=A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-119-19329-6|veditors=Hasselbach-Andee R|edition=1st|pages=27–46|language=en|chapter=The Emergence of Cuneiform Writing|doi=10.1002/9781119193814.ch2|s2cid=216180781}}</ref> Peradaban besar lainnya yang berkembang pada masa ini adalah Mesir Kuno dan [[Peradaban Lembah Indus]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=October 2015|title=Ancient civilization: Cracking the Indus script|journal=Nature|volume=526|issue=7574|pages=499–501|bibcode=2015Natur.526..499R|doi=10.1038/526499a|pmid=26490603|vauthors=Robinson A|s2cid=4458743}}</ref> Bangsa-bangsa ini kemudian berdagang satu sama lain dan menciptakan teknologi seperti roda, bajak, dan layar.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Crawford H|year=2013|title=The Sumerian World|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-21911-5|pages=447–61|chapter=Trade in the Sumerian world|author-link=Harriet Crawford}}</ref><ref name=":142">{{cite journal|date=2018|title=Prehistoric innovations: Wheels and wheeled vehicles|url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=714342|journal=Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae|language=English|volume=69|issue=2|pages=271–298|doi=10.1556/072.2018.69.2.3|issn=0001-5210|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623152751/https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=714342|archive-date=23 June 2021|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Bodnár M|s2cid=115685157|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=1985|title=The Invention of the Plow|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/178600|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|volume=27|issue=4|pages=727–743|doi=10.1017/S0010417500011749|issn=0010-4175|jstor=178600|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409092618/https://www.jstor.org/stable/178600|archive-date=9 April 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Pryor FL|s2cid=144840498|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Carter2">{{cite book|vauthors=Carter R|year=2012|url=https://www.academia.edu/1576775|title=A companion to the archaeology of the ancient Near East|location=Chichester, West Sussex|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-8988-0|veditors=Potts DT|pages=347–354|chapter=19. [[Watercraft]]|access-date=8 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428190743/https://www.academia.edu/1576775/Watercraft|archive-date=28 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Astronomi dan matematika juga dikembangkan dan [[Piramida Agung Giza]] pun dibangun.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Pedersen O|year=1993|title=Early physics and astronomy: A historical introduction.|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-40340-5|page=1|chapter=Science Before the Greeks}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Robson E|year=2008|title=Mathematics in ancient Iraq: A social history.|publisher=Princeton University Press|pages=xxi}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=2003|title=Building the Great Pyramid: Probable Construction Methods Employed at Giza|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25148110|journal=Technology and Culture|volume=44|issue=2|pages=340–354|doi=10.1353/tech.2003.0063|issn=0040-165X|jstor=25148110|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306011135/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25148110|archive-date=6 March 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Edwards JF|s2cid=109998651|url-status=live}}</ref> Terdapat bukti adanya kekeringan parah yang berlangsung sekitar seratus tahun yang mungkin menyebabkan kemunduran peradaban-peradaban ini,<ref>{{cite journal|date=August 2018|title=New geological age comes under fire|journal=Science|volume=361|issue=6402|pages=537–538|bibcode=2018Sci...361..537V|doi=10.1126/science.361.6402.537|pmid=30093579|vauthors=Voosen P|s2cid=51954326}}</ref> dan peradaban-peradaban baru muncul setelahnya. Bangsa [[Babilonia]] mendominasi Mesopotamia,<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Saggs HW|year=2000|title=Babylonians|url=https://archive.org/details/babylonians0000sagg|publisher=Univ of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-20222-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/babylonians0000sagg/page/7 7]}}</ref> sementara yang lainnya seperti kebudayaan pra-historis di hilir lembah [[Mississippi|Mississipi]], [[peradaban Minoa]], dan [[Dinasti Shang]], memperoleh kejayaannya di daerah-daerah baru.<ref>{{cite journal|date=1 December 2005|title=Poverty Point as Structure, Event, Process|journal=Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory|language=en|volume=12|issue=4|pages=335–364|doi=10.1007/s10816-005-8460-4|issn=1573-7764|vauthors=Sassaman KE|s2cid=53393440}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=August 2017|title=Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans|journal=Nature|volume=548|issue=7666|pages=214–218|bibcode=2017Natur.548..214L|doi=10.1038/nature23310|pmc=5565772|pmid=28783727|vauthors=Lazaridis I, Mittnik A, Patterson N, Mallick S, Rohland N, Pfrengle S, Furtwängler A, Peltzer A, Posth C, Vasilakis A, McGeorge PJ, Konsolaki-Yannopoulou E, Korres G, Martlew H, Michalodimitrakis M, Özsait M, Özsait N, Papathanasiou A, Richards M, Roodenberg SA, Tzedakis Y, Arnott R, Fernandes DM, Hughey JR, Lotakis DM, Navas PA, Maniatis Y, Stamatoyannopoulos JA, Stewardson K, Stockhammer P, Pinhasi R, Reich D, Krause J, Stamatoyannopoulos G}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Keightley DN|year=1999|title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-47030-8|veditors=Loewe M, Shaughnessy EL|pages=232–291|chapter=The Shang: China's first historical dynasty}}</ref> Zaman Perunggu tiba-tiba [[Keruntuhan Zaman Perunggu Akhir|runtuh]] sekitar tahun 1200 SM, mengakibatkan hilangnya sejumlah peradaban dan dimulainya [[Zaman Kegelapan Yunani]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=2015|title=Drought and societal collapse 3200 years ago in the Eastern Mediterranean: a review|journal=WIREs Climate Change|volume=6|issue=4|pages=369–382|doi=10.1002/wcc.345|vauthors=Kaniewski D, Guiot J, van Campo E|s2cid=128460316}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=1 June 2012|title=The influence of climatic change on the Late Bronze Age Collapse and the Greek Dark Ages|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=39|issue=6|pages=1862–1870|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2012.01.029|vauthors=Drake BL}}</ref> Selama periode ini, besi mulai menggantikan perunggu, yang mengarah ke [[Zaman Besi]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Wells PS|date=2011|title=European Prehistory: A Survey|url=https://archive.org/details/europeanprehisto0000unse_q5z8_2ed|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4419-6633-9|veditors=Milisauskas S|series=Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology|pages=[https://archive.org/details/europeanprehisto0000unse_q5z8_2ed/page/405 405]–460|language=en|chapter=The Iron Age|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-6633-9_11}}</ref>
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=== Kesadaran dan pikiran ===
Kewaspadaan, atau kepekaan akan keberadaan internal atau eksternal, adalah definisi paling sederhana dari kesadaran manusia.<ref name="consciousness">{{cite dictionary|title=Consciousness|dictionary=Merriam-Webster|access-date=4 June 2012|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consciousness|archive-date=7 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907122314/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consciousness|url-status=live}}</ref> Kesadaran dianggap sebagai "aspek yang paling dikenal sekaligus paling misterius dalam hidup kita".<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Schneider S, Velmans M|year=2008|title=The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-75145-9|veditors=Velmans M, Schneider S|chapter=Introduction|author2-link=Max Velmans}}</ref> Meskipun telah berabad-abad dilakukan analisis, definisi, penjelasan, dan perdebatan oleh para filsuf dan ilmuwan, kesadaran tetaplah sesuatu yang membingungkan dan kontroversial.<ref name="van_Gulick2004">{{cite encyclopedia|vauthors=van Gulick R|year=2004|title=Consciousness|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness/|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=14 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014065308/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness/|url-status=live}}</ref> Satu-satunya pandangan yang disepakati secara luas tentang topik ini adalah keyakinan bahwa kesadaran itu ada.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Searle J|year=2005|title=The Oxford companion to philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse_f5n3|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-926479-7|veditors=Honderich T|chapter=Consciousness|author-link=John Searle}}</ref> Terdapat perbedaan pendapat mengenai apa sebenarnya yang perlu dipelajari dan dijelaskan sebagai kesadaran. Beberapa filsuf membagi kesadaran menjadi kesadaran fenomenal dan kesadaran akses. Kesadaran fenomenal adalah pengalaman inderawi itu sendiri, sedangkan kesadaran akses adalah kesadaran yang dapat digunakan untuk bernalar atau mengendalikan tindakan secara langsung.<ref name="Bl">{{cite journal|date=June 1995|title=On a confusion about a function of consciousness.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_behavioral-and-brain-sciences_1995-06_18_2/page/227|journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences|volume=18|issue=2|pages=227–47|doi=10.1017/S0140525X00038474|vauthors=Block N|s2cid=246244859}}</ref> Kesadaran terkadang identik dengan 'pikiran', dan di waktu lain, sebuah aspek darinya. Secara historis, hal ini dikaitkan dengan introspeksi, pemikiran pribadi, imajinasi, dan kemauan.<ref name="JJ3">{{cite book|vauthors=Jaynes J|year=2000|url=https://s-f-walker.org.uk/pubsebooks/pdfs/Julian_Jaynes_The_Origin_of_Consciousness.pdf|title=The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|isbn=0-618-05707-2|author-link=Julian Jaynes|access-date=25 October 2020|orig-year=1976|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807100304/https://s-f-walker.org.uk/pubsebooks/pdfs/Julian_Jaynes_The_Origin_of_Consciousness.pdf|archive-date=7 August 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Saat ini, hal ini sering kali mencakup beberapa jenis pengalaman, kognisi, perasaan, atau persepsi. Istilah yang digunakan dapat pula bervariasi, dari 'kesadaran', 'kesadaran akan kesadaran', atau kesadaran diri.<ref name="Rochat 2003 717–731">{{cite journal|date=December 2003|title=Five levels of self-awareness as they unfold early in life|journal=Consciousness and Cognition|volume=12|issue=4|pages=717–31|doi=10.1016/s1053-8100(03)00081-3|pmid=14656513|vauthors=Rochat P|s2cid=10241157}}</ref> Kemungkinan terdapat berbagai tingkat atau urutan kesadaran,<ref name="Carruthers2011">{{cite web|date=15 August 2011|title=Higher-Order Theories of Consciousness|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-higher/|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413163246/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-higher/|archive-date=13 April 2021|access-date=31 August 2014|vauthors=Carruthers P|url-status=live}}</ref> atau berbagai jenis kesadaran, atau hanya satu jenis kesadaran dengan fitur yang berbeda.<ref name="Antony2001">{{cite journal|year=2001|title=Is ''consciousness'' ambiguous?|journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies|volume=8|pages=19–44|vauthors=Antony MV}}</ref>
 
Proses memperoleh pengetahuan dan pemahaman melalui pemikiran, pengalaman, dan indera disebut sebagai kognisi.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cognition|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/cognition|website=Lexico|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] and [[Dictionary.com]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708041349/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/cognition|archive-date=8 July 2016|access-date=6 May 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref> Otak manusia memahami dunia luar melalui indera, dan masing-masing orang sangat dipengaruhi oleh pengalamannya, yang mengarah pada pandangan subjektif tentang keberadaan dan berlalunya waktu.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Glattfelder JB|date=2019|title=Information—Consciousness—Reality: How a New Understanding of the Universe Can Help Answer Age-Old Questions of Existence|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-03633-1|veditors=Glattfelder JB|series=The Frontiers Collection|pages=515–595|language=en|chapter=The Consciousness of Reality|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-03633-1_14|s2cid=189379814}}</ref> Sifat dasar dari pemikiran adalah hal yang sentral dalam bidang psikologi dan yang terkait dengannya. Psikologi kognitif mempelajari kognisi, yakni proses mental yang melandasi perilaku.<ref>{{cite web|title=American Psychological Association (2013). Glossary of psychological terms|url=https://www.apa.org/research/action/glossary.aspx|publisher=Apa.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708064652/http://www.apa.org/research/action/glossary.aspx|archive-date=8 July 2014|access-date=13 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Dengan fokus utama pada perkembangan pikiran manusia sepanjang rentang kehidupan, psikologi developmental berusaha untuk memahami bagaimana manusia memandang, memahami, dan bertindak di dunia dan bagaimana proses-proses ini berubah seiring bertambahnya usia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Developmental Psychology Studies Human Development Across the Lifespan|url=https://www.apa.org/action/science/developmental/index.aspx|website=www.apa.org|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709054242/https://www.apa.org/action/science/developmental/index.aspx|archive-date=9 July 2014|access-date=28 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Burman E|year=2017|title=Deconstructing Developmental Psychology|location=New York, NY|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-138-84695-1}}</ref> Hal ini dapat berfokus pada perkembangan intelektual, kognitif, saraf, sosial, atau moral. Para psikolog telah mengembangkan tes kecerdasan dan konsep angka kecerdasan (IQ) untuk menilai kecerdasan relatif manusia dan mempelajari sebarannya di dalam masyarakat.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1 January 2004|title=Intelligence Assessment|journal=Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology|language=en|pages=307–314|doi=10.1016/B0-12-657410-3/00510-9|isbn=978-0-12-657410-4|vauthors=Colom R}}</ref>