Program Apollo: Perbedaan antara revisi

[[Berkas:Apollo program insignia.pngsvg|200px|rightka|Lencana dari Program Apollo]]

'''Program Apollo''' adalah serangkaian [[misi luar angkasa berawak]] yang dilaksanakan oleh [[Amerika Serikat]] ([[NASA]]) menggunakan [[pesawat antariksa Apollo]] dan [[Saturn (keluarga roket)|roket Saturn]], dilaksanakan selama tahun 1961-1975. Program ini didedikasikan untuk cita-cita (dari perkataan terkenal Presiden Amerika Serikat, [[John F. Kennedy]]) "mendaratkan seorang manusia di [[Bulan]] dan mengembalikannya dengan selamat ke Bumi" selama dekade 1960-an. Cita-cita ini dicapai oleh misi [[Apollo 11]] pada Juli 1969.

Program diteruskan hingga awal 1970-an untuk melakukan eksplorasi ilmiah di Bulan, dengan total enam pendaratan sukses. Hingga 2006, tidak ada lagi misi luar angkasa berawak yang melebihi [[orbit bumi rendah]]. Program [[Skylab]] yang dibuat kemudian, dan [[Proyek gabungan Amerika-Soviet, Apollo-Soyuz|Proyek Percobaan Apollo-Soyuz]] menggunakan perlengkapan yang awalnya diproduksi untuk Apollo dan sering dianggap sebagai bagian dari program Apollo.

Di luar keberhasilan tersebut, terdapat beberapa kegagalan besar; salah satu di antaranya mengakibatkan tewasnya tiga astronotastronaut, [[Gus Grissom|Virgil Grissom]], [[Edward HigginsEd White (antariksawan)|Ed White]] dan [[Roger B. Chaffee|Roger Chaffee]] dalam peristiwa kebakaran landasan peluncuran [[Apollo 1]]. Ada juga ledakan pada misi [[Apollo 13]] yang hampir menewaskan tiga astronotnyaastronautnya. Pelepasan gas beracun selama masuk kembali ke atmosfer Bumi dalam pesawat Proyek Percobaan Apollo-Soyuz hampir juga menewaskan tiga astronotastronaut lagi.

[[Berkas:Moon landing map surveyor.svg|thumbjmpl|250px|Tempat pendaratan pesawat ruang angkasa "Apollo" (ditandai dengan segitiga hijau) dan pesawat ruang angkasa "Luna" (merah) dan "Surveyor" (kuning).]]

Program Apollo semula disusun terlambat pada masa pemerintahan Presiden [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] sebagai program lanjutan dari [[Proyek Mercury|Program Mercury]] dalam melakukan misi mengorbit Bumi berawak yang lebih maju. Faktanya Apollo menjadi program ketiga setelah [[Proyek Gemini|Program Gemini]]. Program Apollo secara dramatis diorientasikan kembali menjadi sebuah cita-cita agresif pendaratan manusia di Bulan oleh Presiden [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] dengan pengumumannya di sesi gabungan istimewa sidang Kongres AS pada [[25 Mei]] [[1961]]:

:"..Saya percaya bahwa bangsa ini sebaiknya melibatkan diri dalam mencapai cita-cita, sebelum dasawarsa ini berakhir, mendaratkan seorang manusia di Bulan dan mengembalikannya dengan selamat ke Bumi. Tak ada satu pun proyek luar angkasa pada periode ini yang akan lebih mengesankan bagi umat manusia, atau lebih penting lagi pada eksplorasi luar angkasa jangka panjang; dan tak ada satu pun yang akan begitu sulit atau mahal untuk menyelesaikan.."Program ini sedang

== Referensi ==

* {{cite book |last=Beschloss |first=Michael R. |authorlink=Michael Beschloss |editor1-last=Launius |editor1-first=Roger D. |editor2-last=McCurdy |editor2-first=Howard E. |title=Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership |year=1997 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |location=Champaign, IL |isbn=0-252-06632-4 |lccn=96-51213 |chapter=Kennedy and the Decision to Go to the Moon |ref=Beschloss}}

* {{cite book |last=Bilstein |first=Roger E. |others=Foreword by [[William R. Lucas]] |title=Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/contents.htm |accessdate=August 1, 2013 |series=The NASA History Series |origyear=Originally published 1980 |year=1996 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington D.C. |oclc=36332191 |id=NASA SP-4206 |ref=Bilstein}}

* {{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |others=Foreword by [[Samuel C. Phillips]] |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=August 1, 2013 |series=The NASA History Series |year=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |lccn=79-1042 |id=NASA SP-4205 |ref=Brooks, et al.|archive-date=2015-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020095653/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html|dead-url=yes}}

* {{cite book |last=Burrows |first=William E. |title=This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age |year=1999 |publisher=Modern Library |isbn=0-375-75485-7 |oclc=42136309 |ref=Burrows}}

* {{cite book |last=Chaikin |first=Andrew |authorlink=Andrew Chaikin |title=[[A Man on the Moon]] |year=1994 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New York |isbn=0-14-027201-1 |oclc=38918860 |ref=Chaikin}} Chaikin interviewed all the surviving astronauts and others who worked with the program.

* {{cite book |author=[[United States Congress|Congress]], [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], [[United States House Committee on Science, Space and Technology|Committee on Science and Astronautics]] |title=Discussion of Soviet Man-in-space Shot |type=Hearing |date=April 13, 1961 |publisher=[[87th United States Congress|87th Congress]], first session |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=4052829 |lccn=61061306 |ref=87th Congress}}

* {{cite book |author=Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Science and Astronautics |title=1974 NASA Authorization Hearings |type=Hearing on H.R. 4567 |year=1973 |publisher=[[93rd United States Congress|93rd Congress]], first session |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=23229007 |ref=93rd Congress}}

* {{cite book |last1=Dawson |first1=Virginia P. |last2=Bowles |first2=Mark D. |title=Taming Liquid Hydrogen: The Centaur Upper Stage Rocket 1958-2002 |url=http://www.history.nasa.gov/SP-4230.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=September 12, 2012 |series=The NASA History Series |year=2004 |publisher=NASA |id=NASA SP-2400-4320 |oclc=51518552 |ref=Dawson & Bowles}}

* {{cite book |last1=Ertel |first1=Ivan D. |last2=Newkirk |first2=Roland W. |last3=Brooks |first3=Courtney G. |others=Foreword by Kenneth S. Kleinknecht |title=The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/documents/NTRS/collection3/NASA_SP_4009-4.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=August 1, 2013 |volume=IV |year=1978 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Office, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |id=NASA SP-4009 |oclc=23818 |lccn=69-60008 |display-authors=2 |ref=Ertel et al.}}

* {{cite book |last=Gray |first=Mike |authorlink=Mike Gray |title=Angle of Attack: Harrison Storms and the Race to the Moon |url=https://archive.org/details/angleofattackhar0000gray_t8p9|origyear=First published [[W. W. Norton & Company]] 1992 |year=1994 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=New York |isbn=0-14-023280-X |oclc=30520885 |ref=Gray}}

* {{cite book |last=Hansen |first=James R. |title=Enchanted Rendezvous: John C. Houbolt and the Genesis of the Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous Concept |url=http://history.nasa.gov/monograph4.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=May 3, 2012 |series=Monographs in Aerospace History Number 4 |year=1999 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=69343822 |ref=Hansen}}

* {{cite book |last=Heppenheimer |first=T.A. |title=The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA's Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/sp4221.htm |accessdate=August 1, 2013 |series=The NASA History Series |year=1999 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=40305626 |id=NASA SP-4221 |ref=Heppenheimer}}

* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Stephen B. |title=The Secret of Apollo: Systems Management in American and European Space Programs |url=https://archive.org/details/secretofapollosy0000john|series=New series in NASA history |year=2002 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |location=Baltimore |isbn=0-8018-6898-X |oclc=48003131 |lccn=2001005688 |ref=Johnson}}

* {{cite book |editor1-last=Launius |editor1-first=Roger D. |editor2-last=McCurdy |editor2-first=Howard E. |title=Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership |year=1997 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=0-252-06632-4 |lccn=96-51213 |location=Champaign, IL |ref=Launius & McCurdy}}

* {{cite book |last=Launius |first=Roger D. |title=Apollo: A Retrospective Analysis |url=http://archive.org/details/nasa_techdoc_20040084534 |accessdate=August 1, 2013 |edition=Reprint |series=Monographs in Aerospace History Number 3 |origyear=Originally published July 1994 |date=July 2004 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |ref=Launius}}

* {{cite book |last1=Murray |first1=Charles |authorlink1=Charles Murray (author) |last2=Cox |first2=Catherine Bly |title=Apollo: The Race to the Moon |url=https://archive.org/details/apolloracetomoon0000murr|year=1989 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-671-61101-1 |oclc=19589707 |lccn=89006333 |ref=Murray & Cox}}

* {{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=August 1, 2013 |series=The NASA History Series |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=[[NASA]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-050631-X |lccn=00-061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |ref=Orloff|archive-date=2007-08-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823124845/http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm|dead-url=yes}}

* {{cite book |last=Sidey |first=Hugh |authorlink=Hugh Sidey |title=John F. Kennedy, President |year =1963 |publisher=Atheneum |location=New York |url=http://archive.org/details/johnfkennedypres000540mbp |accessdate=August 1, 2013 |lccn=63-7800 |ref=Sidey}}

* {{cite book |last=Wilford |first=John Noble |authorlink=John Noble Wilford |title=We Reach the Moon: The New York Times Story of Man's Greatest Adventure |year=1969 |publisher=Bantam Paperbacks |location=New York |oclc=29123 |ref=Wilford}}

* {{cite book |last=Collins |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Collins (astronaut) |others=Foreword by [[Charles Lindbergh]] |title=Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys |url=https://archive.org/details/carryingfire00mich|origyear=Originally published 1974; New York: [[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]] |year=2001 |publisher=Cooper Square Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8154-1028-7 |lccn=2001017080 |ref=Collins}} Astronaut Mike Collins autobiography of his experiences as an astronaut, including his flight aboard Apollo 11.

* {{cite book |last=Cooper |first=Henry S.F., Jr. |title=Thirteen: The Apollo Flight That Failed |url=https://archive.org/details/thirteenapollofl00coop|origyear=Originally published 1972; New York: Dial Press |year=1995 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=0-8018-5097-5 |oclc=31375285 |lccn=94039726 |ref=Cooper}} Although this book focuses on Apollo 13, it provides a wealth of background information on Apollo technology and procedures.

* {{cite book |last1=French |first1=Francis |authorlink1=Francis French |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |authorlink2=Colin Burgess (author) |others=Foreword by [[Walter Cunningham]] |title=[[In the Shadow of the Moon (book)|In the Shadow of the Moon]]: A Challenging Journey to Tranquility, 1965–1969 |year=2007 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |location=Lincoln |isbn=978-0-8032-1128-5 |oclc=182559769 |lccn=2006103047 |ref=French & Burgess}} History of the Apollo program from Apollos 1–11, including many interviews with the Apollo astronauts.

* {{cite book |last=Kranz |first=Gene |authorlink=Gene Kranz |title=Failure is Not an Option: Mission Control from Mercury to Apollo 13 and Beyond |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780743200790|year=2000 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-7432-0079-9 |oclc=43590801 |lccn=00027720 |ref=Kranz}} Factual, from the standpoint of a flight controller during the [[Project Mercury|Mercury]], [[Project Gemini|Gemini]], and Apollo space programs.

* {{cite book |last1=Lovell |first1=Jim |authorlink1=Jim Lovell |last2=Kluger |first2=Jeffrey |authorlink2=Jeffrey Kluger |title=[[Lost Moon|Apollo 13]] |origyear=Previously published 1994 as ''[[Lost Moon]]'' |year=2000 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|Houghton Mifflin Company]] |location=Boston |isbn=0-618-05665-3 |oclc=43118301 |lccn=99089647 |ref=Lovell & Kluger}} Details the flight of Apollo 13.

* {{cite book |last1=Pellegrino |first1=Charles R. |authorlink1=Charles R. Pellegrino |last2=Stoff |first2=Joshua |title=Chariots for Apollo: The Untold Story Behind the Race to the Moon |url=https://archive.org/details/chariotsforapoll0000pell|year=1999 |publisher=Avon Books |location=New York |isbn=0-380-80261-9 |oclc=41579174 |ref=Pellegrino & Stoff}} Tells [[Grumman]]'s story of building the Lunar Modules.

* {{Cite book |last1=Scott |first1=David |authorlink1=David Scott |last2=Leonov |first2=Alexei |authorlink2=Alexei Leonov |last3=Toomey |first3=Christine |others=Foreword by [[Neil Armstrong]]; introduction by [[Tom Hanks]] |title=Two Sides of the Moon: Our Story of the Cold War Space Race |url=https://archive.org/details/twosidesofmoon00scot|edition=1st U.S. |year=2004 |publisher=[[Thomas Dunne Books]] |location=New York |isbn=0-312-30865-5 |oclc=56587777 |lccn=2004059381 |ref=Scott & Leonov}}

* {{cite book |last=Seamans |first=Robert C., Jr. |title=Project Apollo: The Tough Decisions |url=https://archive.org/details/projectapollotou0000seam|series=Monographs in Aerospace History Number 37 |year=2005 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-074954-9 |oclc=64271009 |lccn=2005003682 |id=NASA SP-4537 |ref=Seamans}} History of the manned space program from September 1, 1960, to January 5, 1968.

* {{cite book |last1=Slayton |first1=Donald K. |authorlink1=Deke Slayton |last2=Cassutt |first2=Michael |authorlink2=Michael Cassutt |title=Deke!: An Autobiography |url=https://archive.org/details/dekeautobiograph0000slay|year=1995 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |isbn=0-312-85918-X |ref=Slayton & Cassutt}} Account of Deke Slayton's life as an astronaut and of his work as chief of the astronaut office, including selection of Apollo crews.

* {{cite book |last=Wilhelms |first=Don E. |authorlink=Donald Wilhelms |title=To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration |url=https://archive.org/details/torockymoongeolo0000wilh_p9l2|year=1993 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |location=Tucson |isbn=0-8165-1065-2 |oclc=26720457 |lccn=92033228 |ref=Wilhelms}} The history of lunar exploration from a geologist's point of view.

== Pranala luar ==

* [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/history/apollo/index.html Apollo program history]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128180332/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/history/apollo/index.html |date=2012-01-28 }} at NASA's Human Space Flight (HSF) website

* [http://history.nasa.gov/apollo.html The Apollo Program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724153316/http://history.nasa.gov/apollo.html |date=2008-07-24 }} at the NASA History Program Office

* [http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/apollo.htm Apollo Spinoffs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404160907/http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/apollo.htm |date=2012-04-04 }} at the NASA Spinoff website

* [http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/apollo11/index1.html Apollo 35th Anniversary Interactive Feature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127004628/http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/apollo11/index1.html |date=2011-11-27 }} at NASA (in [[Adobe Flash|Flash]])

* [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/apollo/index.html Apollo Gallery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106014910/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/apollo/index.html |date=2012-01-06 }} at NASA's Human Space Flight (includes videos/animations)

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